Social Policy (Financial Phase)

The British approach towards Indian society during the Industrial phase had been characterised by aggressive intervention in the form of Social reform legislation including Female infanticide (1795), Ban on Sati (1829), human sacrifice (1846), Widow remarriage Act (1856) etc.

Further Christian Missionaries who were working to spread Christianity since at least late 18th century got major boost after the Act of 1813 which allowed missionaries to preach and propagate their religion. They used the education as a tool to spread Christianity and westernize India.

This approach was primarily based on two objectives:

• • Transform Indian taste thus creating demand for Indian goods
• • To make British rule palatable to Indians by westernising and Christianising.

However it backfired as any social change cannot be brought from above. This social resentment among orthodox sections of Indians gave way to channelisation of anger against the company rule during the Great revolt.

Understandably post-independence this policy was abandoned and conservative policy of non-intervention was adopted in social matters.

However, it is not that no reforms were taken at all but in all cases the initiative of reform was taken by Indian reformers rather than colonial administrators. This engagement is clearly visible in cases such as The Age of consent bill, 1891 and Sharda Act, 1929.

Cultural Policy (Financial Phase)

The cultural policy during industrial phase was guided mainly by Utilitarianism and Liberalism. Although there was a minor difference that Utilitarianism envisaged an independent India in far future, Liberalism did not envisage so. But both ultimately were ‘civilising missions’ aimed at controlling India in order to ‘civilise’ Indians (white man’s burden).

However, after the Great revolt, there was a drastic change in the colonial activities due to the following factors:

• • Indians had rejected the civilising mission of the British;
• • British industrial leadership was coming under threat from other powers.
• • The desire to leverage India’s diversity against her in order to perpetuate British rule.

In response, the British abandoned their Utilitarian and Liberal principles in favour of a much more conservative position.

• • The abandoned their civilising missions and declared Indians inherently Barbaric and unfit for civilization. Conversely, conservative thinkers such as James Fitzjames declared the Europeans to be the ‘master race’ and thus justified the permanent subjugation of Indians to the British.
• • Additionally recent advances in science were co-opted in a corrupt manner to justify this position. For example, Darwin’s theory of Evolution was used by Herbert Spencer to propose the framework of Social Darwinism which tried to ply the maxim of the ‘survival of the fittest’ to nation and the races.

The idea of racial superiority, the British began actively racially segregating the Indian society.

• • Racial discrimination which was earlier largely confined within the imperial apparatus now emerged as a social phenomenon.
• • The British consciously segregating whites and Anglo-Indians from the non-whites in order to preserve the aura of racial superiority.
• • Further, in response to rising industrial competition, the Utilitarian vision of a self-governed India in the future was discarded. Instead, Indians were declared unfit for self-rule. It was argued that the steady hand of the British was necessary to prevent India from sliding back into darkness and backwardness.
• • Further the British also began actively denying the presence of the so called ‘Indian civilization’. Instead they began highlighting the cultural diversity of India in order to oppose India as a land of multiple cultural clusters.

Additionally, the British also realised that it was important for them to divide Indians internally so as to prevent the emergence of wider alliance among them as it would have been disastrous for the British rule. Thus the British devised their infamous ‘divide and rule’ policy.

• • It was designed to divide the Indian society along communal lines and criticise this communal division resulting in permanent division of Indian society into hostile segments.
• • Initially it was used to divide Hindus and Muslims and later to divide different linguistic caste and class and gender groups.

Therefore during the financial phase the British finally revealed their true face and intentions towards India and Indians. Thus it is not surprising that Indian nationalism emerged during this period.

Rise of Nationalism

The origin of modern nationalism can be found in Europe during 16th-18th when it was going through the phase of enlightenment. Benedict Anderson describes nationalism as ‘an imagined community’ that shares some commonality.

Features of European Nationalism:

• • Cultural homogeneity – European nationalism was based on linguistic homogeneity in which people speaking same language developed a sense of oneness.
• • Absolute monarchy emerged during this phase because of rise of enlightened despots and weakening of feudalism leading to rise of Monarchical nationalism
• • Treaty of Westphalia (1648) gave Europe the concept of territorial sovereignty, non-interference in each other’s internal affairs etc. which provided for fixed territories.
• • Popular Nationalism – French Revolution transformed subjects into citizens. It gave them popular sovereignty, natural rights, equality, limited government, and individual liberty. These changes gradually spread throughout the world and paved way for popular nationalism.
• • After this, monarchical wars start taking the shape of National wars.
• • When popular nationalism aligned with Industrial Capitalism, it also added economic dimension to the conflict. This led to more and more demand for resources giving rise to colonialism and even to two Imperial wars – World War one and World War two.

This way idea of nationalism imported through the process of colonization. In India, it can be seen with the introduction of western education and rise of middle class in second half of the nineteenth century.

Factors for the rise of Indian nationalism:

• • Reaction to colonial rule
• • Unintended consequence of British rule – education, press, rail and road, economic integration, Political/administrative unity of India.
• • Inspiration from Western Ideology by coming into contact with Western civilization.
• • Inspiration from Indian civilizational past – CA Bayly has traced the roots of Indian nationalism to its pre-colonial days. He describes it as Traditional Patriotism which was a sentiment attached to land, language and cult that developed long before the process of Westernization.
  • ◦ Partha Chatterjee, while highlighting the local origins of nationalism countered the view of Benedict Anderson which denies intellectual agency to the people of India in shaping their own history.
  • ◦ He argues that even before the political struggle for power began, the Indian society was imagining its nation in a private cultural sphere.
• • Role of Socio-Religious Reform movement which aroused the spirit of Indians and provided them symbols of resistance and oneness. For example – ‘India for Indians’ by Swami Dayanand Saraswati.

Debate on Indian Nationalism

Colonial Historiography – It has either tried to out rightly deny Indian nationalism on account of lack of Cultural Homogeneity or has credited British for its rise.

• • Benedict Anderson even goes to such an extent to say that nationalism in the developing world of Asia and Africa followed one or the other model developed in the West.
• • Colonial scholars find its origin in following British policies:
  • ◦ Political unity under a single umbrella
  • ◦ Census which provided a sense of identity to common Indian
  • ◦ Administrative unity – uniform laws, courts, offices, civil services etc.
  • ◦ Western education and knowledge introduced modern ideas
  • ◦ Print media was introduced by British which played a significant role in spreading awareness among people.

Nationalist Historiography – Indian scholars argue that it is altogether a different brand of Nationalism which is not dependent on cultural uniformity but it is a Spiritual concept that transcends political boundaries.

Scholars have pointed out the historical connection of India nationalism:

• • Rig Veda talks about ‘Bharat Rashtra’ in a sense of geographical entity ranging from Himalayas to Indian Ocean.
• • Jambudvipa is a geo-cultural entity which represents a whole region howsoever politically divided it may be.
• • Kautilya and Kalidasa’s literature too represents the cultural unity of whole Bharat in a poetic manner.
• • Bhakti Movement infused a cultural-spiritual flavour to such a diverse nation based on same religious and cultural themes. It led to Cultural integration of India.
• • Foreign sources too have always talked about the region east of Indus as India, Hind or Hindustan.

Great Revolt of 1857

The revolt of 1857 is often regarded as a watershed of modern India history. It brought about permanent shift in the British colonial policy towards India.

Further, the revolt has been a matter of intense historical discussion as different historians from the very beginning have interpreted its causes, nature and consequences through different perspectives.

Causes

1. Issue of Greased Cartridges

Colonial historians such as LER Rees, James Outram and W. Taylor have identified the greased cartridges issue as the single most important cause for the mutiny of the sepoys.

However, this reveals two important flaws in the colonial understanding-

• • The revolt was a simple sepoy mutiny
• • The mutiny was spontaneous and unexpected

On the other hand, it becomes clear that the greased cartridge issue simply acted as the trigger that ignited sepoys. The gunpowder of resentment had been accumulating among Indians since the establishment of British rule.

In fact, the revolt was not a spontaneous uprising. Deep seated resentment over economic, political, administrative, military and socio-cultural grievances had made it inevitable. It would have happened sooner or later. The greased cartridges issue simply ensured that it began as a sepoy mutiny.

2. Economic Causes

The British policies of direct plunder, over-taxation, and deindustrialization, commercialization of agriculture and complete destruction of native commerce had totally destroyed the balance of traditional Indian economy and transformed it into a primarily agrarian and rural economy.

British rule had become synonymous with famine, poverty, landlessness, deprivation, bonded labour and economic dependency.

The peasants and artisans were the worst affected but apart from a small minority of urban merchants, the economic interests of India’s traditional Zamindars, merchants and bankers had also been hurt.

Thus British colonial rule caused resentment among every section of the Indian society.

3. Political Causes

British adopted a deceitful attitude towards Indian rulers such policy of Ring fence, Effective control, Subsidiary alliance and Doctrine of Lapse. They either imposed an unequal alliance from them or annex their territory outright.

• • The British policy of imperialism during the initial phase also caused suspicion among Indian rulers.
• • The abolition of titles and pensions enjoyed by Indian rulers were perceived as broken promises. The annexation of Awadh on the pretext of misgovernance caused huge resentment among the rulers, taluqdars and the ordinary peasants. It was seen as a clear betrayal as Awadh had been a friendly British ally since 1765.
• • The people of the newly annexed regions felt immense resentment due to British economic exploitation and could easily remember the relative better times of native rule.
• • Further, the alien character of the British rule alienated Indians from it. Unlike previous foreign invaders, the British consciously avoided cultural assimilation with India. Rather, they were more interested in draining India’s wealth to Britain. Thus, British rule appeared permanently as foreign and exploitative to ordinary Indians.
• • The issue of absentee sovereigntyship- It was allowing British crown to relegate Indian affairs in the hands of a private company. This was leading to mal-administration and exploitation causing resentment among Indians.

4. Administrative Causes

• • Institutional racial discrimination- The colonial administrative machinery was inherently racist. Indians were discriminated against in matters of appointment, salary, promotions, transfers, postings etc. For example
  • ◦ no Indian could aspire to enter civil services;
  • ◦ no Indian in the army could attain a rank higher than Subedar;
  • ◦ Indian soldiers received a salary that was on average five times lower than European counterparts of the same rank;
  • ◦ the barracks and mess of Indian soldiers were separate and inferior to European soldiers;
  • ◦ European officials routinely verbally and physically abused Indian soldiers often referring to them with derogatory names.
• • Replacement of Persian with English as the court language- In 1837 Persian was replaced by English as official language for all government business.
  • ◦ Earlier, the Muslim Ashrafia community (affluent class) which was fluent in Persian was employed as government officials. Suddenly, they lost their major source of income and were forced into penury.
• • Insensitivity of the administration and its alien character- the colonial administration was designed not to serve the Indians but to make their exploitation more efficient.
  • ◦ The machinery was guided by the objective of maximizing economic returns for the British and revenue.
  • ◦ Thus, it emerged as the enforcer for the drain of wealth.
  • ◦ Further, the administration maintained a clearly demarcated boundary between Europeans and Indians and made no attempt to win the trust of Indians.
  • ◦ As a result, it assumed the character of an insensitive, exploitative and distinctly alien regime.
  • ◦ Ordinary Indians felt no goodwill towards it. Rather, they felt extreme resentment.
• • Petty corruption- The lower level of administration is the first point of contact between the state and the people.
  • ◦ British administrative machinery that emphasized upon absolute control and the suppression of common aspirations provided an opportunity for petty officials such as low clerks, constables, watchmen, revenue assessors and accountants who freely exploit the people.
  • ◦ Petty corruption was a major contributor towards the erosion of public trust in the colonial regime that caused deep seated resentment.
  • ◦ Thus, British laws, courts, institutions and the police had an inherent anti-Indian bias.
  • ◦ Thus, the large amount of civilian participation during the great revolt was not surprising.

5. Military Causes

• • Racial discrimination (as discussed earlier)
• • Sepoy was essentially a peasant in uniform. This discontent mirrored the general discontent of ordinary Indians. For example, the sepoys of Awadh were the largest section of rebels since Awadh had recently been annexed.
• • Rising religious tensions- Service in the companies’ army was coming increasingly at odds with the religious preferences, beliefs and practice of the Indian sepoys.
  • ◦ British officials and chaplains openly mocked Hindu gods and the Islamic faith and pressurized soldiers to accept Christianity.
  • ◦ The General Service Enlistment Act, 1856 required that every new recruit would have to provide an undertaking that they would not refuse to serve abroad. This was in violation of the upper caste taboo against oversea travel.
  • ◦ Thirdly, rumours that the British were mixing animal bone dust into the flour alarmed both Hindus and Muslim soldiers.
  • ◦ Greased cartridges issue.
• • The economic interests of Indian sepoys had also been harmed in the recent years-
  • ◦ In 1849, Dalhousie passed a resolution discontinuing the foreign service allowance (Bhatta) for soldiers serving in Sindh and Punjab.
  • ◦ The Indian Post Act, 1854 also abolished the military post and made the use of postage stamps compulsory which added further economic burden on the sepoys.
• • The myth of British invincibility had been shattered. In the recent past, the British had suffered some embarrassing defeats during Anglo-Sikh war, the Crimean war and the first Anglo-Afghan war.
  • ◦ Their aura of invincibility was broken emboldening the Indian Sepoys to act.
  • ◦ In this sense, the mutiny of 1857 was a continuation of the series of earlier mutinies including the Bengal mutiny (1764), Vellore mutiny (1806), Barrackpore mutiny (1825), mutiny during the Afghan war (1840).

6. Socio-Cultural Causes

• • Social reform legislations such as the ban on Sati (1829), Widow Remarriage (1856) and allowing girls to receive education alarmed the conservative Indians. These acts were perceived as an undue interference in Indian social matters. Conservative Indians became suspicious that the British were deliberately trying to destroy the fabric of Indian society in order to Christianize and westernize it.
• • The activities of the Christian missionaries and the attitude of the government towards them also alarmed Indians.
  • ◦ Forcible conversions, mass conversions and conversions by inducement were either overlooked or actively supported by the British administration.
  • ◦ The hostilities of the Indian Christian missionaries towards the Indian religions and the open support given to them by the British government caused further resentment.
• • The taxation of Indian places of religious worship such as mosques and temples infuriated the Maulvis and Pundits along with pious Indians from all backgrounds. This was an unprecedented development in Indian history.
• • Lex Loci Act, 1850 and Religious Disabilities Act, 1856 allowed a Christian convert who inherit the property of his ‘heathen’ father. This removed a major hurdle towards the mass conversion of Hindus to Christianity and was perceived as a direct attack on Hinduism by the British.

Therefore, Great Revolt of 1857 was the outcome of general discontent that had accumulated over decades among Indians of all classes due to a variety of factors.

Storm Centres and Leaders

The revolt was largely a north Indian affair affecting the region between Delhi and Bihar that began on 10th May, 1857 when sepoys at Meerut killed their superiors and freed their imprisoned comrades, looted the armoury and marched to Delhi. At Delhi, they proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as the leader of the revolt. This was a development of immense political significance.

• • With this act, the sepoys had transformed their mutiny into a general revolt of Indians against the British.
• • Further, this proclamation gave an all India sense to the revolt since the long history of Mughal rule had transformed the Mughals to a symbol of an all India unity.
• • The rebels drafted letters to the rulers across India encouraging them to join the rebellion and expel the British.

Storm Centres and Leaders: Meerut – Soldiers; Delhi – Bahadur Shah Zafar, Begum Zeenat Mahal, General Bakht Khan; Kanpur – Nana Saheb, Tania Tope, Azimullah; Bareilly – Khan Bahadur; Jhansi – Rani Lakshmi Bai; Lucknow – Begum Hazrat Mahal; Faizabad – Maulvi Ahmadullah; Patna – Maulvi Pir Ali; Arrah (Jagdishpura) – Kunwar Singh.

Spread and Extent of the Revolt

• • Areas- North India (mainly Ganga-Yamuna doab)
• • Classes- peasants, artisans, shopkeepers, petty traders, Zamindars, rulers, native officers (elites who had suffered). Most of the intellectual class remained neutral.
• • Religions- Hindus and Muslims participated enthusiastically and displayed complete unity.
• • Genders- Both men and women participated in large numbers. Women were performing leadership roles.
• • Civilian participation was extremely high.
• • Castes- All castes participated but the participation of the upper castes was the most intense.

Targets: British armouries, offices, courts and forts. Along with it, British officials, soldiers civilians (traders, bankers, women and children). Indian collaborators such as big Zamindars, money lenders and loyal Indian princes were also targeted. British infrastructure like postage and telegraph infrastructure was targeted alongwith blocking of major roads and canals.

Causes for the Failure of the Revolt

• • The revolt was not an All India movement. It was confined primarily to the North India.
  • ◦ The other parts remained peaceful. Therefore, the British could regroup and tackle the rebels with relative ease.
• • The revolt could not mobilize all Indians. General participation remained limited to the North-West provinces and Awadh.
• • In fact, in other regions, the British could rely upon the support of powerful Indian allies such as the Scindias of Gwalior and the Maharaja of Patiala.
  • ◦ Furthermore, powerful elements such as big Zamindars and moneylenders who owed their fortunes to the British rule, emerged as ‘breakwaters in the storm’.
• • The revolt also suffered due to lack of proper planning and coordination. The Indian leadership was also suffering from mutual suspicions and mistrust.
• • The revolt also suffered due to a deficit of a proper leadership. Bahadur Shah Zafar was an unwilling and incapable rebel.
• • Other leaders were guided by their narrow personal dynastic or regional interest. For example, Nana Saheb was fighting for the restoration of his pension while Rani Lakshmi Bai and Begum Hazrat Mahal were fighting for the restoration of their respective states.
  • ◦ CA Bayly has pointed out that the rebels had various motives which were not always connected to any specific grievance against the British. Often they fought against each other and this disunity played into British hands.
  • ◦ Thomas Metcalfe argues that united in defeat, the rebel leaders would have fallen at each other’s throats in victory.
• • The rebellion also suffered due to the lack of any clear national vision. For the majority of the rebels, their revolt meant the restoration of old India by ending British rule.
  • ◦ Viewed within long arc of history, the revolt appears to be a medieval reaction to British imperialism. It was a backward looking and a feudal movement as it lacked national character.
  • ◦ Even Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru believed that the revolt was the ‘last flicker in Indian feudalism’s flame’.
• • The British also had access to better equipment, logistics and reinforcements.
• • The rebellion lacked the academic support of the Indian middle class intelligentsia. The urban intellectual class remained neutral.
• • The rebels also lacked proper understanding of British imperialism.
  • ◦ They perceived British Indian Empire as a traditional ‘Indian’ power. They did not realize that the British Empire was in fact, the world’s most formidable global superpower.
  • ◦ However, the Indian rebels did not appeal to the enemies of Britain for any assistance.

Consequences of the Revolt of 1857

1. Queen’s Proclamation, 1858

Presented by Canning in assembly of Princes at Allahabad. It proclaimed that –

• • No Indian state shall be annexed
• • No Indian shall be forced to convert
• • There shall be equal protection under the law for all Indians
• • There shall be no discrimination against Indians in matters of recruitment for the services
• • India shall be governed directly by the Crown

2. An Act for the Better Government of India, 1858

• • The Board of Control was abolished
• • It was replaced by the Secretary of State for India with a council of 15 members
• • The Governor General of India was made answerable to the Secretary of State and was given the additional role of a Viceroy

3. Military Reorganization

• • The proportion of European soldier to Indian soldier was increased.
• • Sensitive and Strategic wings of the army such has Intelligence and Artillery were monopolized by European officials.
• • Principle of division and counterpoise was utilized to reorganize army along regional and sectarian lines in order to prevent future general mutiny.
• • Indian sepoys were distanced physically, materially as well as ideologically from the civilian population to prevent the infection of general discontent.
• • Myth of martial races was introduced to discourage recruitment from those regions that had been most active during the revolt.

4. End of the British Civilizing Mission

The British had realized that their aggressive social reform movement in India had backfired. Thus, they abandoned their mission ‘civilize India’. Instead, they adopted much more conservative approach towards reform.

• • In this way they fulfilled two objectives simultaneously-
  • ◦ They neutralized the animosity of conservative Indians
  • ◦ At the same time by declaring the Indians ‘unfit for civilization’, they were able to come up with a new justification for their continued rule.

5. Intensification of Racism

The British declared that Indians were unfit for civilization and self-governance because they were racially inferior. On the other hand, the ‘racially superior’ whites were declared as the master race.

• • Following the Great Revolt, a strict policy of racial segregation was introduced in order to maintain ‘racial purity’ of the master race.

6. Divide and Rule Policy

The British came to the realization that in order to ensure the longevity of their regime, they would need to ensure that Indians never unite against them.

• • Thus, they envisioned to exploit India’s diversity to their advantage.
• • The biggest strength of the Revolt of 1857 had been its remarkable Hindu-Muslim unity.
• • The British worked deliberately to destroy this unity and permanently divide these communities politically. Thus, the Divide and Rule policy became the official social policy of the British in India. Later, this policy was applied to further groups as well such as different languages, castes, classes and genders.

Nature of the Revolt of 1857

The revolt of 1857 is one of the most important chapters of modern Indian History. Understandably, divergence of views exists among historians regarding its nature and generating a consensus is difficult.

Broadly, there are two extreme positions regarding this issue- 1. The colonial historians tend to characterize it as a simple sepoy mutiny. On the other hand, nationalist scholars framed it as national war of independence. 2. Recent research concludes that the reality lies somewhere in the middle.

British Scholars/officials

• • John Lawrence, Seeley and Malleson- ‘Selfish Sepoy Mutiny’
  • ◦ These scholars characterize it as a selfish sepoy mutiny. According to them, they enjoyed no political leadership or popular support. However, this view has been challenged on the grounds that the uprising may have started as the mutiny of soldiers but it did not remain confined to it.
• • JG Medley- The revolt was a racial struggle for the supremacy between whites and blacks.
  • ◦ This has also been rejected because even if it is true that all whites were on one side, the same cannot be said for the blacks of India.
  • ◦ If anything, racial consciousness affected the British mind far more profusely than the Indian mind.
• • According to TR Holmes, the revolt started as a conflict between civilization and barbarism. He has tried to frame it as a conflict between the Occident and the Orient.
  • ◦ However, this viewpoint has narrow racism. While overlooking the atrocity of British against Indians, it focuses on so called barbarism of Indians against European women and children alone.
• • According to LER Rees, the revolt was a religious war against Christians.
  • ◦ However, this position has also been rejected on the ground that both sides used religious rhetoric to justify their actions.
  • ◦ James Outram tried to term it as the Hindu-Muslim conspiracy against British rule. However, this viewpoint has also been rejected on the grounds that there is little evidence on any major conspiracy.

Nationalist Historians

In contrast to the British historians, nationalist scholars such as VD Savarkar, KC Panikkar, JC Vidyalankar, and Ashok Mehta have tried to portray the revolt as well planned war of independence, a nationalist uprising and as the first war of Indian independence.

• • VD Savarkar and Ashok Mehta have portrayed the revolt as the first war of Indian independence and nationalist movement respectively.
• • Similarly, KC Panikkar emphasized that the aim of the revolt was to expel the British and establish national state.
• • Lala Lajpat Rai in his Young India described the revolt as political as well as National Uprising.
• • SC Bose described it as a national uprising rather than a sepoy mutiny. In 1870, future British PM Benjamin Disraeli while speaking from the core of the house of commons characterized revolt as India’s national revolt.

Balanced Perspective

Post-independence, Indian scholars conducted extensive research into the revolt and reinterpreted its character. Prominent among them are RC Majumdar, SN Sen and SB Chaudhary. Apart from them, certain political figures such as JL Nehru and Maulana Azad have also questioned the national perspective.

• • RC Majumdar is of the opinion that it was ‘neither the first, nor national, nor a war of independence’.
  • ◦ The 1857 uprising was neither the first mutiny nor the first popular revolt against the British. Instead, it was the most powerful one of the long series of powerful revolts against colonial exploitation.
  • ◦ It is hard to ascribe a national character to the revolt due to its limited territorial spread and participation. Also Indian nationalism was still in its embryonic stage.
  • ◦ Thus, it was at best, an anti-colonial revolt.
• • Dr. SN Sen- While the revolt of 1857 did not involve any elaborate planning, it should still be considered a war of independence or a revolutionary war.
  • ◦ The revolt transformed from a sepoy mutiny into a revolutionary war once the rebellious soldiers proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader and convinced section of the aristocracy and the common population to join them.
  • ◦ Thus, the revolt of 1857 may have started as a sepoy mutiny but it ended as a war of independence in a national revolt.
• • Dr. SB Chaudhary in his book ‘Civil Rebellions in the Indian Mutiny’ (1857-59), regards the revolt of 1857 as the coming together of two series of disturbances resulting from Military grievances and Civilian grievances.
  • ◦ He argues that merger of the military and civil disturbances transformed the revolt into something like a War of Independence.
  • ◦ At the same time, he also points out the relatively independent motivations behind these disturbances and argued that the revolt was something less than truly national war of independence.

Conclusion

On the basis of this discussion, it can be said that the revolt was definitely more than a simple sepoy mutiny. It involves the participation of section of civilian population including rulers, Zamindars, peasants, artisans and petty traders apart from Indian sepoys.

At the same time, it was also something less than the first war of national independence. However, its impact should not be underestimated. Not only did it trigger a major overhaul of the colonial regime, it also emerged as a major source of inspiration for the later generation of nationalists.

Formation of Congress

Amidst the socio-economic as well as political crisis caused by the British rule and rising awareness among Indians owing to socio-religious reform movement as well as rising political awareness due to rise in a number of political organizations, it was just a matter of time before a national organization could be formed.

Thus, the Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 by AO Hume at Sir Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit Mahavidyalaya in Bombay.

• • It was attended by 72 members
• • First President was WC Bonnerjee
• • Important leaders who were absent were SN Banerjee and AM Bose.
• • Its formation is considered as the true beginning of the Indian National movement because it was the first All India Political platform in which nationalists across the India participated.
  • ◦ Anti-colonial
  • ◦ Instrumental in India’s liberation
  • ◦ Secular organization which represented the interests of all Indians irrespective of class, language or region. It was a democratic, liberal and progressive platform with an inclusive agenda
  • ◦ Post-independence, it provided stewardship to young India in accordance with the values of the national movement.

However, formation of the INC has invited great historiographical debate surrounding around the intentions and the objectives for its formation.

Colonial perspective: Safety Valve Theory

Lala Lajpat Rai, for the first time, has written in ‘Young India’ in 1916 that Congress was a ‘safety valve’ deliberately created by the British in order to avoid any large scale revolt.

• • It was to handle and release the pressure of the public anger and would act as the shield for British rule.
• • As the source of his information, he highlighted the biography of AO Hume written by William Wedderburn-
  • ◦ According to him, Hume created the Congress as a safety mechanism and described Hume as an ‘enlightened imperialist’.
  • ◦ He writes that as a revenue official in Shimla, Hume had received reports of a widespread discontent which may lead to a major revolt such as the great revolt of 1857.
  • ◦ Therefore, Hume got into contact with the then Governor General Dufferin and both decided to form an organization which would let Indians to vent their anger through it.

Nationalist perspective: Lightning conductor theory

While rejecting the colonial perspective of safety valve, nationalists believe that rather Congress wisely used AO Hume as a lightning conductor to shield the Congress which was still in its infancy.

• • Congress was actually the manifestation of maturity of India nationalism.
  • ◦ Since 1830s various regional political organizations had emerged which advocated the rights of the Indians versus the British.
  • ◦ These organizations were not only active in India but also overseas which had even started creating a consciousness regarding British misrule in India.
  • ◦ By 1880s, there was greater appetite for common action between these regional organizations.
  • ◦ In 1883, Indian Association of Calcutta formed by AM Bose and SN Banerjee had launched Indian National Conference to mobilize nationalists throughout India.
  • ◦ They had already created the momentum but the tough choice between Indian National Conference and Indian National Congress was to be made.
  • ◦ In such a scenario, it was necessary to take help from British in order to secure the new born movement from administrative wrath. So, nationalists had used Hume as a lightning conductor.
• • Gradually, with the declassification of official files, it came to be revealed that neither Dufferin was involved nor interested in the formation of Congress. Rather he was suspicious of the activities of Hume.
• • Thirdly, Lala Lajpat Rai’s opinion cannot be said to be objective because by he wrote the book, he had left Congress and formed Hindu Mahasabha. Thus, the element of rivalry and partiality cannot be rejected.
• • Fourthly, it is argued that Wedderburn was a good friend of Hume and he had realized that by that time Congress had ascended and looked at as the enemy of the Raj.
  • ◦ He was just attempting to shield his friend from guilt of creating Congress and thus his narrative also lacked objectivity.
• • Fifthly, the report of intelligence does not go to a revenue official but to the Home Secretary. As a Revenue official, he could not have found the intelligence report thus eroding the very basis of the argument.

In conclusion, it can be said that Hume’s intention may have been to use the INC as a ‘safety valve’ but he himself was being used by the Indian nationalists as a lightning conductor. INC ultimately emerged as the strongest critic and opponent of the British Raj and led a lengthy and sustained struggle against it till independence. Thus, it hardly behaved as a safety valve.

Practice Question

Q. To what extent do you believe that the ‘safety valve theory’ explains the formation of Indian National Congress?

The formation of Congress was too important an episode of Indian national struggle to miss a critical scrutiny. On one hand is the view that looks at it as the junior partner of the British whereas on the other is the nationalist perspective which highlights its critical role in Indian independence.

The first perspective tries to defame the Congress as a ‘safety valve’ for the British. It was first propounded by Lala Lajpat Rai in his book where he mentioned about the William Wedderburn’s biography of AO Hume. Wedderburn mentions that AO Hume being a revenue official in Shimla received intelligence report that told him about a brimming revolution in India on the lines of the great revolt.

Governor General Dufferin and AO Hume decided to form an organization of Indians to vent out their anger and shield British rule from its impact.

Later, even Communists tried to undermine the formation as well as organization of the Congress as a Bourgeoisie (educated middle class) attempt to check any popular revolt.

However, historians like Sumit Sarkar among other nationalists have proposed the theory of ‘lightning conductor’. They believe that Congress at its initial stage used British support to shield itself from the administrative suppression. They even put forth the following views in their support-

• • Gradual evolution- Congress had gone through a gradual process of evolution as various socio-political organizations had started coming from 1830s. The conscious attempt of Indians had risen to such a level that any national organization could not have been delayed. India Association had already conducted Indian National Conference in 1883. INC was the logical conclusion of such attempts.
• • The declassification of official files of that period also highlights that Dufferin was neither involved nor interested in the formation of Congress. In fact, he was suspicious of Hume’s activities.
• • Thirdly, Lala Lajpat Rai’s accounts cannot be said to be objective as he had left Congress by then and formed Hindu Mahasabha.
• • Fourthly, Wedderburn’s partiality cannot be denied because he was a good friend of Hume and was trying to present him as an enlightened imperialist who had no intentions of forming an INC which would later be problematic for British.
• • Fifthly, Hume was a revenue official who could not have laid his hands upon any intelligence report.
• • Even communist theory is not true because Congress was an umbrella which had incorporated all the shades of the national movement and led the freedom struggle.

Thus, it would be wrong to assume the INC as a safety valve. It acted as a lightning conductor which made the organization foolproof against any administrative action. Congress gradually emerged as an umbrella which carried everyone with it to achieve Indian independence.

Phases of the Indian National Movement

1. Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

2. Extremist Phase (1905-19)

3. Revolutionary Extremism (1907-1918) and (1924-1930)

4. Gandhian Phase (1919- 1947)

5. Socialist Phase (1929-1947)

6. Communal Nationalism (1937- 1947)

1. Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

This was the earliest phase of nationalist politics where the INC was dominated by moderate liberals and put forward moderate demands using moderate methods.

• • Moderate leaders- were from the upper middle class who believed in Western ideals such as Parliamentary democracy, limited government, secularism, popular sovereignty and separation of powers.
  • ◦ These leaders were pro-British in nature
  • ◦ They were urban professionals and are also called ‘part time politicians’
  • ◦ They believed India was not ready for complete autonomy or independence and thus preferred gradual reforms. For this reason, they are also known as gradualists or incrementalists.
  • ◦ They wanted to create political awareness among masses and had no faith in mass politics.
  • ◦ Prominent leaders were Dadabhai Nauroji, MG Ranade, GK Gokhale, Pherozshah Mehta, RC Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha etc.
• • Moderate demands- They demanded Constitutional and administrative reforms in a gradual manner such as-
  • ◦ Expansion of the legislature
  • ◦ Indianization of the civil services- Simultaneous examination of the civil services and Indianization of the syllabus
  • ◦ Reduction in administrative and military expenditure
  • ◦ Increase in social sector expenditure
  • ◦ Reduction in land revenue
  • ◦ Reduction in export duties and increase in import duties
  • ◦ Protection of peasants against Zamindars
  • ◦ Introduction of electoral politics in India

These demands reveal the following-

• ◦ They had a secular All India outlook- none of their demands was specific to any region, religion, linguistic community or class.
• ◦ The moderates had a liberal and progressive agenda. They were inspired by the values of the Enlightenment and desired to shape Indian politics and society in line with these values.
• ◦ They had a pro-British outlook. Rather than demanding the end of the British rule, they demanded its reforms. This shows that they believed that British rule was inherently beneficial for Indians.
• ◦ On the other hand, the moderates had a rational outlook of Indian problems. They were able to pinpoint the root causes of Indian suffering and their only flow was their misperception of the nature of British rule.

Nature of Moderate Politics

• • The Congress held annual sessions at the end of every year where leaders from across the country would take time out of their busy schedules to congregate and discuss the pressing issues.
  • ◦ Parliamentary procedure was strictly followed
  • ◦ In the first sitting, President and Secretary were elected to preside over the entire session and decide the agenda of the session.
  • ◦ Deliberation was an essential part of the INC methodology.
  • ◦ Resolutions were then voted upon and modified if necessary.
  • ◦ At the end of this session an annual resolution would be prepared and put to vote.
  • ◦ Based upon this, several requests, petitions, memoranda and protests were drafted and sent to the concerned authority at the appropriate time.
  • ◦ The major demands were also published through newspapers.
• • Moderate politics had a distinctly elite and urban character.
  • ◦ INC members belonged to upper middle class.
  • ◦ Masses had no representation and participation
  • ◦ They were only limited to the cities and did not desire to engage the rural masses.
• • Moderates felt that the masses of India were not yet ready for political action. They considered them to be
  • ◦ uneducated and illiterate,
  • ◦ superstitious and conservative
  • ◦ feudal and parochial

Thus they believed masses as counterproductive to modern politics. Instead they believed in educating and modernizing the masses.

However, due to this attitude, social base of their movement remained narrow and politics remained ineffective.

• • The moderates believed in the constitutional method of politics
  • ◦ These included prayers, petitions, propaganda, memoranda etc.
  • ◦ This was because they were admirers of constitutionalism and western liberal institutions.
  • ◦ This was partly the reason why they stayed away from mass politics.
• • Later nationalists criticized the moderates’ method as a form of Political mendicancy.
  • ◦ However, we must remember that moderates were the pioneers of their field. They would have to undergo a period of trial and error. In this scenario, moderates should be evaluated more leniently.
  • ◦ Characterizing the moderates as loyalists and unpatriotic elements would be a gross mischaracterization since their entire career was dedicated towards the well-being of all Indians.
  • ◦ Thirdly, it was also a strategic decision for the early leaders as the British were unlikely to tolerate more radical approach. British repression would have completely smothered the nascent national movement.
  • ◦ Fourthly, moderates had been trained in the western methods and had grown up to admire Western societies and thus moderate politics came naturally to them.
  • ◦ Therefore, calling them political mendicants would be historically unfair.

Evaluation of the Moderate Phase

• • They failed to fulfill any of their major demands. This was due to the following limitations-
  • ◦ Their elite urban movement and narrow social base
  • ◦ Their unwillingness to involve the masses meant that they were never in a position to pressurize the British.
  • ◦ Their constitutional methods were ineffective in convincing the British to introduce reforms.
  • ◦ Their failure to perceive the true character of the British rule emerged as their greater weakness. They continued believing that the British would fulfill their demands willingly but in reality any progress would have to be fought for.
  • ◦ Extremist nationalists criticized the moderates as political mendicants.
• • Finally, we should not overlook the significant achievements of the moderates.
  • ◦ They were the torchbearers of Indian nationalism- Through their contributions they ensured that the Congress emerged as the secular All India progressive and democratic platform.
  • ◦ This transformed the Congress into legitimate representative of all Indians and vastly enhanced its effectiveness in the later stages.
  • ◦ Additionally, these values became the core values of the Indian national movement as a whole and were crucial for defining our national identity.
• • While the moderates failed in their immediate objectives, their failure was not an absolute one.
  • ◦ Frustrated with the ineffectiveness of the moderate methods, younger nationalists were forced to turn towards the extremist ideology which infused new energy alongwith new methods, demands and a new strength.
• • Economic critique of British rule- Most significant success of the moderate leadership was their economic critique of the British rule.
  • ◦ Their scientific appraisal of the colonial economy proved that it was inherently exploitative.
  • ◦ They showed that the colonial system was designed to strip India of its wealth. In fact, the term ‘Drain of Wealth’ was coined by these leaders to refer to this phenomenon.
  • ◦ Among the moderates, DB Nauroji, MG Ranade and RC Dutt were the most prominent economic critics of British rule.
  • ◦ They exposed the inherently exploitative character of British rule and thus shattered the illusion of British Providentialism (British rule is for betterment of India).
  • ◦ This played an important role in the upsurge of extremist nationalism from the early twentieth century onwards.
  • ◦ Further, the writings of the moderate leaders inspired further research from later Marxist scholars. This resulted not only in the growth of socialist ideology within the national movement but also in the emergence of the Marxist school of studies.
• • While none of the major Marxist demands were fulfilled, some minor reforms were secured. These include
  • ◦ Indian Councils Act, 1892
  • ◦ Establishment of the Welby Commission on Indian expenditure in 1895
  • ◦ Appointment of a Public Service Commission in 1896.

Practice Question

Q. Critically evaluate the contributions of the moderate leaders within the national movement.

Q. The Moderate methods were bound to fail. Critically discuss.

Moderate leaders dominated the political phase of Indian national movement from 1885-1905 and laid the foundation of an anti-British freedom struggle. However their role is not accepted uncritically and thus demands a comprehensive discussion.

Critiques of Moderates have considered their efforts as unsuccessful and a failure on following grounds-

• • Their elite urban movement and narrow social base who are even called as ‘part time politicians’.
• • Their unwillingness to involve the masses meant that they were never in a position to pressurize the British.
• • Their constitutional methods were ineffective in convincing the British to introduce reforms.
• • Their failure to perceive the true character of the British rule emerged as their greater weakness. They continued believing that the British would fulfill their demands willingly but in reality any progress would have to be fought for.
• • Extremist nationalists criticized the moderates as political mendicants as their methods of demand were confined to 3 Ps- petition, prayer and protests without any strong anti-government position.

However, a retrospective analysis of Moderates presents a more balanced opinion on following grounds-

• • They were the torchbearers of Indian nationalism- Through their contributions they ensured that the Congress emerged as the secular All India progressive and democratic platform.
• • This transformed the Congress into legitimate representative of all Indians and vastly enhanced its effectiveness in the later stages.
• • Additionally, these values became the core values of the Indian national movement as a whole and were crucial for defining our national identity.
• • Economic critique- Through ‘Drain of Wealth’ theory, moderate leaders like Dadabhai Nauroji and RC Dutt challenged the myth of ‘British Providentialism’ which fed the falsehood of betterment of India because of British rule.
  • ◦ It was perhaps the most significant achievement of moderates because through this one step they eroded the basis of British rule and through an organization provided a platform for discontented Indians to come together.

Therefore, moderates should not only be looked at from the point of view of immediate success or failure but it should be understood that they were the pioneers of the national movement and with little resources they possessed, they were able to create a momentum which was further utilized by coming generations.

2. Extremist Phase (1905-19)

The gradual realization of the true character of the British rule intensified the anti-British sentiment among younger nationalists. They could see that it was essentially an alien, unsympathetic and exploitative regime and was unconcerned about the welfare of Indians. He was only interested in strengthening control to exploit resources. This was accompanied by the realizations that the British could never willingly address Indian demands. Since British interests and Indian interests were mutually contradictory. Therefore, constitutional methods of struggle could never succeed.

• • This pushed the younger nationalists towards more radical nationalism including open cooperation with the colonial regime.
• • The failure of the moderates caused frustration among the younger nationalists.
  • ◦ They began searching for an alternative approach which led them towards direct action.
• • Reaction against British atrocities, misrule and Indian suffering- During the late 19th century, India witnessed series of severe famines which exposed the apathetic nature of colonial administration and true attention towards the general state of British misrule.
  • ◦ Towards the end of 19th century, with the growth of education number of graduates had increased sharply but employment opportunities had not increased accordingly.
  • ◦ This resulted in sharp increase in the number of highly educated, critically aware unemployed youth.
  • ◦ Naturally, resentment against British regime increased and resulted in the growth of extremism.
  • ◦ Further, in the recent years, the British regime had adopted series of draconian measures to contain the rise of nationalism. These included the deportation of the Chapekar brothers (Natu brothers) without trial and the imprisonment of BG Tilak on charges of sedition for defending them.
  • ◦ These further eroded the trust of Indians in the British regime.
• • Younger generation of nationalists viewed the British attempts “to modernize India” as a deliberate attempt to destroy the India culture and way of life.
  • ◦ Since the beginning of the 19th century, British had been conducting an unceasing assault on the indigenous way of life with the objective “civilizing India” but their real intention had always been to colonize the Indian mind.
  • ◦ They had distorted Indian history and were attempting to convince Indians that British rule was a boon for them.
  • ◦ The younger nationalists saw through this British design and objected to the white washing of Indian culture. Their defense of the Indian way of life brought them into direct conflict with the British regime.
• • Role of external factors should also not be overlooked. The victory of Abyssinia over Italy and Japan over Russia shattered the myth of European invincibility. These small Asian and African nations had not only repelled European aggression but had also given a crushing blow to European military prestige.
  • ◦ In a sea of despair they emerged as beacons of hope for all the colonized people of the Earth.
  • ◦ Younger Indian nationalists were also inspired to directly challenge the British colonizers.
• • The reactionary policy of Curzon (1899-1905) - Curzon was an imperialist of the highest order and displayed immense hostility towards Indian nationalism. He took some reactionary measures to control nationalism including-
  • ◦ Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) which reduced the number of elected members to the Calcutta Municipal Corporation bringing it under European control.
  • ◦ Indian Universities Act, 1904 was passed based upon the recommendations of the Raleigh Commission in the name of improving the standards of university education. This act brought the administration of the universities under strict government control.
  • ◦ Official Secrets Act, 1904 was enacted in the name of protecting India’s internal security but in reality it was meant to gag the free press and speech.
  • ◦ Partition of Bengal was carried out to divide and rule India.
  • ◦ Instead of weakening Indian nationalism, these actions had the effect of strengthening of the nationalist resolve.

Nature of extremist politics

• • Extremists were radical in their approach. Since they rejected the notion of British Providentialism, they were not satisfied with constitutional reforms and instead demanded Swaraj.
• • Instead of using constitutional methods, they relied on aggressive methods involving the masses including Passive Resistance, Boycott, Swadeshi and non-cooperation.
• • Extremist movement remained largely an urban phenomenon but shed the moderates’ elite character.
  • ◦ Not only was the leadership from the lower middle class background but the extremists attracted participants from virtually from all urban classes including professionals, merchants, ordinary service providers, workers, students and even women.
• • While the extremist movement remained secular, secularism was diluted as compared to the moderate movement.
  • ◦ Extremist leaders relied upon religious appeals and cultural symbols to mobilize the masses.
• • While the extremist movement remained politically and socially progressive, they displayed social conservatism.
  • ◦ For example, Tilak’s opposition to Age of Consent Bill, 1891 which proposed to raise the minimum marriageable age for girls from 10 to 12 years. While Tilak opposed child marriage, he was not ready to accept the principle of British interference in Indian social issues.

Critical evaluation of Extremist achievements

1. New energy, new methods, new strength and new objectives

• ◦ It became distinctly anti-colonial setting the stage for direct confrontation with British rule.
• ◦ Constitutional methods were discarded in favour of boycott, Swadeshi, and passive resistance.
• ◦ The social base of the movement multiplied exponentially as the ordinary masses entered it for the first time putting direct pressure on the British rule.
• ◦ Self-help at all costs became the motto of the movement tactically translating in the demand of Swaraj.

2. The extremists were the pioneers of mass struggle in India. They experimented with new strategies and methods such as Swaraj, Swadeshi and Boycott.

• ◦ These were used by far greater effect by later leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi.

3. The extremist movement permanently transformed national attitudes and aspirations.

• ◦ They permanently altered the national mood towards the British. Following this, the national movement remained anti-colonial till the very end.
• ◦ Under their leadership, national movement graduated from the demand of incremental reforms towards Swaraj. With time, the definition of Swaraj itself evolved to become increasingly holistic and complete.

4. The Extremists were also far more effective in pressurizing the British

Owing to the pressure created by the Swadeshi movement, the British were forced to respond with-

• ◦ Indian Councils Act, 1909
• ◦ Annulment of Partition of Bengal in Delhi Durbar in 1911.

5. Surat Split (1907) - Their inability to compromise and cooperate with the moderates resulted in the Surat split which slowed down the national movement as a whole.

6. The extremists also diluted the secular credentials of the national movement by mobilizing the masses in the name of religion. It appeals to the Hindu identity and use of Hindu symbols which alienated the Muslim masses.

• • The inclusiveness of the mass movement suffered and the gap between the two communities further increased.
• • The element of cultural nationalism became permanently associated with Indian mass politics and proved disastrous.

Practice Question

Q. The beginning of the 20th century saw the emergence of new energy, new strength, new objectives and new methods within the national movement. On the basis of this statement, critically evaluate the contributions of the extremists.

In the beginning of the 20th century, national freedom struggle entered the extremist phase led by leaders such as BG Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and BC Pal etc. On the foundation created by the moderates, these leaders unleashed a new form of struggle.

• • New energy- The movement from hereon became distinctly anti-colonial setting the stage for direct confrontation with the government. The earlier attitude of compromise with the colonial regime was completely shed.
• • New methods- New modes of protest such as boycott, Swadeshi, and passive resistance became accepted in place of prayers, petitions and propaganda being used earlier. A more direct action became possible.
• • New Strength- As the scope for more constructive action broadened, the social base of the masses entered it for the first time putting pressure on the British rule.
• • New objectives- The motto of the movement shifted from some reforms in the administration within the British umbrella to Swaraj. However, the concept of Swaraj was yet vague and ambiguous.

In this manner, extremists were able to strengthen the national movement but there were certain significant challenges posed by their dominance-

• • Surat split- Their inability to compromise and cooperate with the moderates resulted in Surat split which slowed the struggle.
• • Dilution of secular credentials- although the broad outlook of the movement was secular, the use of religion and religious symbols started being predominant. Hereafter, the element of cultural nationalism became permanently associated with Indian mass politics and proved disastrous.

The beginning of the 20th century observed the transition of Indian national movement from infancy to a comparatively young phase in which extremists took the lead. However this was also the time of beginning of cultural nationalism which was to haunt Indian politics till the very present day.

Q. Compare and contrast the extremist phase of Indian nationalism to moderates.

Both moderates and extremists were the patriots with similar intentions but different modes of action. While moderates were pioneers of the national movement itself, the extremists pioneered its mass movement phase.

Moderates and extremists should not be looked at in silos. They were complementary to each other and the extremist movement was the logical extension of the British attitude towards moderates.

Moderate Phase	Extremist Phase
Moderate leaders came from upper middle class background.	Extremists belonged to lower middle class background.
They were inspired by Western ideals and knowledge.	They derived inspiration from traditional Indian knowledge.
They demanded reforms within the overall umbrella of British patriarchy.	They demanded Swaraj or self-rule but it was ambiguous in nature.
Their attitude was pro-British and they just demanded for true British paternalism.	They were distinctly anti-colonial and were completely opposed to any compromise with colonial setup.
They were suspicious of Indians’ ability to lead a struggle against the British rule and rather maintained an elite character of the organization.	They especially believed in mass politics. Even then their movement remained confined to urban areas but had shed the elitist character.
Their methods of protest were 3 Ps- Prayers, petitions, and propaganda.	Their methods included boycott, passive resistance, Swadeshi and non-cooperation.
The movement under Moderates was completely secular in nature and no use of religious symbols could be seen.	The movement under extremists was broadly secular but use of religious symbols began for mobilizing people. However, this also gave rise to cultural nationalism.
Movement under extremists remained politically and socially progressive.	Under extremists, movement displayed signs of social conservatism.