UPSC CSE PYQs

Plassey

• • The battle of Plassey was "not a great battle but a great betrayal." Comment. [2000, 20m]
• • "The Battle of Plassey that decided the fate of Bengal was won by Clive through intrigues." Explain. [2014, 15m, medieval]
• • After 1757 there grew up a State of Bengal which was a "sponsored state" as well as a "plundered state". Comment. [1999, 20m]
• • Discuss the causes that led to the 'economic drain' in Bengal following the Battle of Plassey. [2004, 60m]
• • "The Battle of Plassey (1757) thus marked the beginning of political supremacy of the English East India Company in India." Critically examine. [2018, 10 Marks]

Between Plassey and Buxar

• • "The revolution of 1760 (Bengal) was really no revolution." Comment. [1987, 20m]
• • The East India Company had thought that they had found an ideal puppet in Mir Kasim. Mir Kasim, however, belied the expectation of the company. Examine critically. [2021, 10 Marks]

Battle of Buxar

• • "Buxar takes rank amongst the most decisive battles ever fought." Comment. [1982, 20m]
• • "Thus ended the famous battle of Buxar, on which depended the fate of India and which was as gallantly disputed as was important in its results." Comment. [1985, 20m]

Plassey-Buxar Comparison

• • "Plassey did not complete the British conquest of India. Had the English been convincingly defeated in any subsequent battle in India, then (the battle of) Plassey would have remained as a minor episode in the history of India." Critically examine. [2014, 10m]
• • "The verdict of Plessey was confirmed by the English victory at Buxar." Comment. [1996, 20m], [2002, 20m]
• • 'The Battle of Plassey (1757) was a skirmish while the Battle of Buxar (1764) was a real war.' Critically examine. [2022, 10m]

Conquest of Bengal

Bengal was the first state where the Company's newly acquired strength was tested vis-à-vis the Indian states. The period from 1757 to 1764 virtually brought about a radical change in the fate of Bengal as well as that of the Company.

Guiding motive of the East India Company in Bengal:

• • The mercantilist policy: Company's motive was to maximize the profit from distant trade.
• • The officers/merchants of the company were committed to carry on the private trade but the biggest obstacle in his path was the Nawab of Bengal.
• • They wanted to oust other European rivals and establish the monopoly.
• • They wanted to end the interference of the officers and employees of the Nawab.

Relation between the company and Nawab & Battle of Plassey:

• • Right from the time of Murshid Quli Khan, there was a bone of contention between British company and Nawab regarding the misuse of dastak.
  • ◦ This dastak was given to the company but even private British merchants were using this dastak for their personal trade.
  • ◦ Company used to sell the dastak even Indian merchants.
• • In spite of the differences with the British company, almost all the Nawabs from Murshid Quli Khan to Aliwardi Khan adopted a moderate approach to the British company.
• • However, Nawab Sirajuddaula adopted an aggressive approach to the British company from the beginning. Siraj had developed serious grievances against the Company which was acting a little too independently.
  • ◦ The Nawab's rivals such as Raj Ballabh (Diwan of Dhaka) and Shaukat Jung were being secretly assisted by the British Company.
• • The issue of the fortification of Fort William became an important one between Bengal Nawab and British company.
  • ◦ Both British and French companies started the fortification during the Seven Years' War. Nawab ordered them to demolish the fortification, as he saw it as a challenge to his sovereignty. While the French at Chandranagar company promptly agreed, the British company refused to comply with the order.
  • ◦ So, Nawab invaded Fort William and plundered it in June 1756 and captured it.
  • ◦ As soon as Clive arrived with naval support from Madras, he re-captured Calcutta. However, surprisingly, the Nawab became lenient and compromised with the company on soft terms in the Treaty of Alinagar. (February 1757)
• • In March 1757, the British Company invaded and occupied Chandranagar, a French territory in Bengal. This was a direct challenge to the sovereignty of the Nawab.
• • Meanwhile, Robert Clive strengthened his position by making secret agreement with Nawab's officer Mir Bakshi Mir Jafar, another military officer, Rai Durlabh, a merchant of Bengal Amichand, a banker of Bengal Fatehchand, and officer-in-charge of Calcutta Manikchand.
• • Finally, the Battle of Plassey took place on 23 June 1757. This was not a major war but a great betrayal.

Significance of Plassey

1. • The military significance of Plassey was negligible. English victory in the battlefield of Plassey was decided before the battle was fought. It was not the superiority of the military power but the conspiracy of the Nawab's officials that helped the English in winning the battle.
2. • The political significance of the Battle of Plassey was not much in immediate sense because the Nawab of Bengal was still a sovereign authority. But, in long term, Plassey marked the beginning of the British conquest of India. The history of Bengal from 1757 to 1765 is the history of gradual transfer of power from the Nawabs to the British. Now the company started to play the role of a kingmaker.
   • ◦ It undermined position of Nawab and elevated the political prestige of the British. During this short period of eight years three puppet Nawabs, Siraj-ud-daula, Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim ruled over Bengal.
   • ◦ Thus, it established a system of a "sponsored" Indian state, controlled but not administered. (Parcival Spear)
3. • The economic significance of this battle was immense because the Company used its newfound political influence to establish commercial monopoly in Bengal. Bengal emerged as a "plundered" state after the battle of Plassey because the company exploited the resource in Bengal in every possible way.
   • ◦ From Mir Jafar
     • ■ The company extracted the heavy sum of 1.77 crore silver rupyas and received the Zamindari of 24 Paragana too.
     • ■ Robert Clive received 20 lakh rupees from the new Nawab in personal status.
   • ◦ From Jagat Seth, 2 million pounds to Clive and Company each.
   • ◦ Also, the Murshidabad Treasury was looted post-Plassey.
   • ◦ William Dalrymple in the book Anarchy describes the loot made of Plassey as "one of the largest corporate windfalls in history".
   • ◦ Eric Stokes, "Plassey revolution was the first English essay in private profiteering on a grand scale."
4. • Monopoly establishment:
   • ◦ Besides the financial gain, the English East India Company was also successful in establishing its monopoly over Bengal trade by marginalising the French and the Dutch companies during the course of Plassey. Using the influence, the Company started to eliminate its European rivals from Bengal one-by-one.
   • ◦ Furthermore, the Company started to tightly control the artisans of Bengal through its Gumastas (Indian agents of the company). It used its corrupt influence to make artisans sell cheaper.
     • ■ Sekhar Bandopadhyay: "for the Company officials Plassey opened the gates to make personal fortunes, not only through direct extortion but also through rampant abuse of dastaks for their private trade."
     • ■ PJ Marshall: The massive invasion of the private trade of Bengal by private British enterprise, threw the division between the Company's public and private interests into confusion and unleashed what has been termed the 'post-Plassey plunder.'
5. • Fate of Bengal
   • ◦ Bengal's administration suffered due to lack of resources because most of the revenue was being cornered by the company and its officials.
   • ◦ Bengal was forced to pay for the British conquest of India. Virtual mastery over Bengal in long term paved way for the ultimate supremacy over entire India. Vast resources of Bengal helped in victory in Carnatic and over Marathas and Mysore.

Between 1757-1760

During this period, Mir Jafar remained a Nawab of Bengal. However, the honeymoon period between the two got over very soon. British started to make further demands from Nawab while his treasury was getting exhausted. He couldn't even tax the trade, and Company agents exploited countryside of Bengal while he couldn't do anything.

The British company got disenchanted with the new Nawab and his ways. So, the British governor Vansittart concluded a secret deal with the new Nawab Mir Qasim. According to this deal, Mir Qasim had to offer to the British company 29 lakhs rupees & three districts (Midnapore, Bardhaman and Chittagong), while in return the post of the Nawab had to be graced by Mir Qasim.

Vansittart characterised this event as 'Bengal Revolution'. However, it is not fair to call it a revolution. Because the following conditions must be fulfilled for the revolution:

• • It must be relatively sudden.
• • The change must be fundamental.
• • It should have support of people.

The change of nawab in Bengal did not fulfil the two conditions. In a way, it was a replacement of one puppet Nawab with another puppet Nawab, while the strings continued to be in the hands of the British. The company continued to play the role of the kingmaker.

Between 1760-1764

Soon, the differences surfaced between the nawab and the Company. Mir Qasim mistakenly expected some autonomy.

Differences between New Nawab Mir Qasim and the Company:

• • Economic factors:
  • ◦ As after the battle of Plassey, the company's merchants became much aggressive in their behaviour and in countryside they were almost carrying loot and plunder while company's governor did not pay heed towards persistent complaints made by the Nawab.
  • ◦ The new Nawab Mir Qasim was taking the issue of misuse of Dastak very seriously.
• • Political Factors:
  • ◦ In order to be free from the British interference, Mir Qasim transferred his capital from Murshidabad to Munger (Bihar).
  • ◦ To strengthen his military position, he started to organize his army on western pattern apart from that he laid the foundation of a gun factory at Munger.
  • ◦ Mir Qasim even sought recognition from Mughal emperor Shah Alam II. (investiture)

Battle of Buxar (1764)

• • The differences between the company and Nawab of Bengal led to an open conflict between the two in 1763. In this conflict, Nawab was defeated, and he fled away to Awadh.
• • Then in association with the Nawab of Awadh Suja-ud-Daulah and Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, he appeared in the battle of Buxar that took place on 22nd October 1764.
• • It was not like a treachery, as we find in the case of Plassey. Rather, it was an open contest and British could defeat the combined powers of all the three.

Treaties of Allahabad

With Shuja-ud-daula (20 August 1765)

• • Transfer of the region of Allahabad and the adjoining territories of Kara.
• • Nawab to pay 50 lakhs to the Company as war indemnity and defray the cost of maintenance of the troops for the defence of his frontier.

With Shah Alam II (12 August 1765)

• • The emperor's firman granted the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the East India Company. The right of Diwani authorized the Company to collect revenue of the subah of Bengal.
• • Shah Alam was taken under the Company's protection. He was assigned Kara and Allahabad region ceded by Shuja-ud-daula. From now on, Shah Alam was to reside at Allahabad.
• • Company to pay Rs 53 lakh for administrative expenses and Rs 26 Lakhs for personal expenses annually as tribute to the emperor.

Significance of the battle of Buxar

The battle of Buxar gave the English Company the complete political control over Bengal and thus it was more decisive than Plassey. Actually, the process of transition started with the battle of Plassey and culminated in the battle of Buxar. It virtually sealed the fate of India and was a real turning point on the road to the British occupation of India.

1. • The victory of company at Buxar confirmed the verdict of Plassey 8 years earlier.
   • ◦ It ended the rivalry between Nawab and British company, as Nawab was then completely subordinated to the British company.
   • ◦ Plassey made the Nawab the British puppet, but Buxar made the British the unchallenged master of Bengal. It ended the rivalry between the Nawab and the Company.
2. • It is one of the most decisive battles ever fought because in this battle three of the most important Indian powers were defeated by English company simultaneously in a particular day.
   • ◦ It also allowed EIC to introduce a dual government in Bengal.
   • ◦ Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II came under the influence of the Company. Theoretically, the whole of Mughal Empire lost to the English company.
   • ◦ Awadh came under indirect control of the Company. Awadh emerged as a buffer state between Bengal and the Marathas, thus cushioning Bengal from Maratha raids.
3. • The outcome of the battle was decided by the quality of leadership and strength of arms.
   • ◦ Compared to Plassey, which was won by treachery, it was a fiercely contested battle.
4. • By winning the Buxar, company got Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
   • ◦ With the Treaty of Allahabad, the Company became the de Jure ruler of Bengal. The Company came to have the real control of the financial administration of Suba-e-Bengal.
   • ◦ The company emerged as the real Master of Resources of Bengal.
   • ◦ It solved the problem of financing Indian trade.
   • ◦ By using the resource of Bengal English company would defeat Mysore, Maratha and other opponents in future.
5. • Transformation in the character of the Company.
   • ◦ Henceforth, the Company began to shake its maritime nature and assume the role of the state.

Robert Clive (Clive of India)

Robert Clive was one of the most prominent personalities among all Englishmen who reached India. His actions left a lasting impact on history of India both directly and indirectly. He started his career as a clerk and rose to the position of factor, then the Governor of Bengal. In fact, he was appointed governor of Bengal twice.

Clive's place in Indian and British imperial history has been a matter of controversy in both the countries since the 18th century. While in India he was seen as an evil exploitative governor who plundered the country, in England he was widely hated as a corrupt and violent Company official.

Achievements of Clive:

1. • For the first time, Clive gained prominence due to his daring siege of Arcot. His success in holding on fort of Arcot against heavy odds changed the direction of the 2nd Carnatic war.
2. • The Battle of Plassey was a personal adventure of Clive. Unlike his fellow officers, he saw in the moment of the Company's defeat in Calcutta an opportunity to not only reclaim the losses, but also to unreservedly establish the rule of East India Company in Bengal.
   • ◦ It made the Bengal Nawab a company protégé.
   • ◦ Though this battle is not of much significance in immediate sense, in the long run it paved the way for the emergence of British Indian Empire.
   • ◦ With this, the French and Dutch lay prostrate before British in Bengal.
3. • After the victory of company in battle of Buxar, Clive was appointed as Governor of Bengal once again. He was sent from London to sign treaties with the defeated parties. Clive signed two Treaties in Allahabad in 1765.
   • ◦ Through first treaty, the company got Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from the Mughal emperor. Company had already received Nizamat rights from Nawab Nazam-ud-Daula in Feb 1965. These rights received by company transformed it from de facto de jure power.
   • ◦ Through the second treaty, he converted Awadh into a protected buffer state, in order to ensure breathing space for the Company to dominate the affairs of Bengal.
4. • Clive tried to curb the evil of private trade by establishing the Society of Trade.
5. • Clive suppressed white mutiny of white soldiers that broke out in 1766.

Limitations and Failures of Clive:

1. • Though the Clive achieved remarkable success in his life but many of its works brought disrepute to Britain rather than glory. He himself shattered the greatness and usefulness of his achievements.
2. • The system of dual government established by Clive in Bengal was a miserable failure. In this system, all the powers were enjoyed by company and responsibility of administration was in the hands of Nawab, who had neither resources nor authority to perform admin functions because of which a situation of anarchy developed in Bengal.
   • ◦ The extreme exploitation resulted in massive famine in Bengal in 1770 which wiped out 1/3rd of its population.
3. • Clive was extremely greedy, he indulged in private trade on a large scale though he tried the curb the private trade of other officials of company.
4. • Clive received huge bribes from the Nawabs of Bengal during both the tenures as governor. Because of his misdeeds, Clive was tried after returning London and he committed suicide.

That is why it is commented that Clive was neither a statesman nor a great person. He shattered the works of his glory through his own actions.

Was Clive the Founder of the British Indian Empire?

1. • For a later generation of Britons, the victory at Plassey by 'Clive of India' marked the birth of their Indian Empire. Clive was deliberately hailed as founder of British Indian empire during the Victorian era.
2. • Colonial historians glorified Clive as founder of British Indian Empire but in reality, he was an adventurer. He took risks which eventually paid off. He was not a planner of empire.
   • ◦ Seize of Arcot, which turned the table against French during 2nd Carnatic war, was just a gamble. The failure in this gamble would have been extremely costly for the company.
   • ◦ Similarly, the re-capture of Calcutta and then the battle of Plassey was another gamble. The defeat of English forces in Plassey would have sealed their fate in Bengal.
3. • Even after winning the battle of Plassey, the company could have lost its possessions in India just by facing a decisive defeat anytime in near future because company's political possessions were on a very shaky ground. Had company lost battle of Buxar, Clive would have found no place in records of history.

Quotes on Clive

• • William Dalrymple: Clive was an unstable sociopath and a racist, hated both in India and England.
• • Shashi Tharoor: Clive was a ruthless, dishonest, unprincipled leader of an unregulated corrupt corporation that oversaw India's loot and plunder.
• • Clive is "a symbol of the most morally bankrupt excesses of Empire" – Afua Hirsch

A new plaque near his statue in Shrewsbury was installed in 2023, during BLM Movement (Black Lives Matter) "The fact that one of Britain's greatest corporate rogues continues to have pride of place at the heart of government suggests that the British elite has not yet confronted its corporate and imperial past." – Nick Robins (The Corporation that Changed the World)

Conquest of Mysore

UPSC CSE PYQs

• • Why was Mysore considered a threat by the British to their possessions and mercantile interests in the south? Do you think that Tipu Sultan's posturing became his undoing? [2009, 30m]
• • Examine the circumstance which led to the Third Mysore War. Could Cornwallis have avoided it? [2006, 60m]
• • "Tipu Sultan was trying to build in Mysore a strong centralised and militarised state, with ambitious territorial design." Critically examine. [2019, 10 Marks]
• • Tipu Sultan had little success in setting forth a course of change significantly different from the general experience of 18th century crisis of Indian politics and society where public life tended over and over to become a system of plundering. Critically examine. [2021, 10 Marks]

Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

The political chaos which followed the decline of Mughal empire fostered the rise of a group of energetic and ambitious military adventures in the 18th century. One such successful military adventurer was Hyder Ali who rose by sheer military skill and courage. Soon, he overthrew the Hindu king of Mysore in 1761, captured power and laid the foundation of Riyasat of Mysore.

• • Hyder centralized power in his own hands.
  • ◦ Controlled independent poligars' activities
  • ◦ Introduced the system of imposing land taxes directly on the peasants
• • He expanded the territories. The territories of the state now encompassed much of present-day Karnataka, large portions of Andhra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
  • ◦ Esp. he invaded and annexed Malabar and Calicut expanding the frontiers of Mysore significantly.
• • Within the next two decades, Mysore became the leading state of the region with an army that could effectively challenge the EIC and defeat the British in multiple battles.

Under Hyder and his son Tipu, Mysore not only emerged as an advanced military power but also became home to modern economic developments.

Tipu Sultan

• • Tipu took the reign from father in 1782. In 1787, he declared himself Badshah after repudiating the overlordship of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam.
• • He played a very significant role in the modernization of Mysore. Under Tipu, the state became a critical player in various kinds of economic activities.

Reforms by Tipu Sultan

Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan are given special consideration among the 18th c Indian rulers as they attempted to modernize Mysore on western line. It is said that India in the 18th century was in dark age.

Economic Reforms:

• • Tipu Sultan took interest in land revenue reforms.
  • ◦ Tipu abolished the system of farming out lands. The state assumed the responsibility of collecting rent directly from peasants. He took steps to remove intermediaries (landlords) and tried to develop direct relations between the state and people.
  • ◦ It augmented the state revenue which oiled his larger military infrastructure.
  • ◦ Tipu also protected peasants against money lenders and revenue officers.
• • Apart from that, Tipu promoted agriculture:
  • ◦ Extension of agriculture to new areas by developing barren land.
    • ■ Tipu attended to the regular repair of tanks and encouraged cultivation in the wastelands by charging very low rents. (tax incentive)
    • ■ He discouraged the production of more than one crop on the same soil so that its fertility was not affected.
  • ◦ Encouraging the cash crops.
    • ■ Cash crops such as areca nut, pepper, cardamom, tobacco and sandalwood were grown as well, and they got good revenue for the state.
  • ◦ He encouraged the production of sugarcane.
  • ◦ Supported sericulture (silk production).
  • ◦ He also took steps for improving animal breeds.
  • ◦ There was a flow of credit into rural economy.
  • ◦ Tipu established a biodiversity garden named Lal Bagh.
• • Tipu tried to develop modern industries with French/Persian support.
• • To promote trade, he took following measures:
  • ◦ He sent commercial ambassadors to certain states like Muscat, France etc. for ambitious oceanic trade.
  • ◦ He restricted the sale of certain products i.e. spices etc so that the British (commercial rival) would be eliminated from this. (state monopoly). Tipu participated in lucrative trade of sandalwood, coconut, rice, silk etc by establishing 30 trading centres in and outside Mysore (including Muscat)
  • ◦ He funded the construction of seagoing vessels from the central treasury.
  • ◦ Above all, he experimented with the creation of a trading mercantile company on the pattern of European countries.
    • ■ Established state commercial corporations with plans to setup factories outside state.

Military Reforms:

Hyder and Tipu reorganized the entire military.

• • He could create a strong and modern army with the support of French experts.
  • ◦ European style military discipline was imposed.
  • ◦ French experts were recruited for training in infantry.
  • ◦ Revamped the cavalry force.
  • ◦ System of Risala with clear chain of command.
• • Technological modernization
  • ◦ Artillery was modernized along European lines. Hyder established modern arsenal at Dindigal in 1755 with French help.
  • ◦ Tipu established gun foundries and saltpeter factories with state ownership.
  • ◦ He promoted development of rocket technology, the effectiveness of which was surprising even to the British.

Foreign Policy:

• • He was well aware of the fact that to defeat the British company is not enough. One needs to defeat the British empire, which was protecting the Company. Therefore, he tried to create a joint front against the British empire at global level by sending his ambassadors to many countries, such as France, Turkey, Afghanistan, Persia.
• • His relationship with France became more cordial after the revolution in which his sympathies lay with the Jacobins.

Socio-Religious Reforms:

• • As part of his social reform measures, Tipu tried to abolish various social abuses like alcoholism. He was the first modern Indian monarch to ban consumption of alcohol in the entire State, not on religious grounds, but on moral and health grounds.
• • First to confiscate the property of upper castes, including Mutts, and distribute it among the Shudras.

Causes behind Anglo-Mysorean Conflict

The Anglo-Mysorean relations between 1760-99 has to be understood in the following context.

• • Competition to control entire Peninsula and Deccan
  • ◦ The British considered Tipu as their chief rival in the south and the main hurdle on their road to supremacy over South India.
  • ◦ "The authorities of the East India Company were acutely hostile to Tipu. They looked upon him as their most formidable rival in the south and as the chief obstacle standing between them and complete domination over South India. Tipu, on his part, thoroughly disliked the English, saw them as the chief danger to his own independence and nursed the ambition to expel them from India." – NCERT
• • British were interested in controlling the rich spice trade on the Malabar coast (cardamom and pepper) which was under Mysore's control.
• • Buffer state issue: Powerful Mysore near Madras was a threat.
  • ◦ Strong Mysore state, with powerful Army and strong economy as seen as a threat by the British.
• • A strong Pro-French policy was pursued by both Hyder and Tipu. Intimate relations between Mysore and French were considered strategically threatening by the British, as the British and French were global rivals and their hostilities spanned across the continents. There was an attempt by the French to revive their fortune in India in the late 18th century.
• • Mutual rivalries among Indigenous powers (eg Arcot, Hyderabad, Marathas, Mysore)
  • ◦ In this context, English pursued the policy of supporting one indigenous ruler against another to maximize their benefit.

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)

• • In the late 18th c, Mysore assumed central importance. The Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Arcot and Marathas also felt threatened.
• • Since English considered Hyder as a threat, they provoked Marathas and Nizam to create a broad-front against Mysore. (Triple Alliance, 1766)
• • Haider rose to the occasion as came to know about the British design. He isolated British diplomatically by turning the Marathas neutral and Nizam into his ally against Nawab of Arcot.
• • When the danger of Marathas and Nizam was averted, Haidar suddenly attacked Madras.
  • ◦ His forces reached the outskirts of Madras, causing complete chaos and panic. This compelled the English to sue for peace.
• • Treaty of Madras (1769):
  • ◦ It restored the status quo and mutual restitution of territories.
  • ◦ There was no provision for war compensation.
  • ◦ Important clause: This was a defensive alliance and both powers agreed to help each other in case of an attack by a third party.

This treaty was an honourable treaty for Hyder Ali. It severely damaged the prestige of English in India. The importance of the First Anglo-Mysore war lies in the fact that the English, for the first time in India, seemed to be on backfoot. The seeds of a continuous friction between Mysore and the British power were thus sowed.

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

Immediate Causes:

• • In the Treaty of Madras of 1769, there was a provision that if the Marathas attacked Mysore in the future, the British would support Hyder Ali. In 1771, Mysore was invaded by the Maratha but British didn't come to help. Hyder Ali considered it a contravention to the spirit of the Treaty of Madras and accused them of breach of faith.
• • Haider Ali found the French more resourceful in terms of fulfilling the army requirements of guns, saltpeter and lead. Consequently, he started importing French war materials to Mysore through Mahe, a French possession on the Malabar Coast.
• • The increasing friendship between Mysore and French raised concern for the British. In 1779, the British company invaded the French region, Mahe. It provided the immediate pretext for the war.

Course of the War:

• • Hyder had upper hand initially:
  • ◦ Using his diplomatic skill, Hyder was able to win over Marathas and Nizam on his side for some time.
  • ◦ It was a fiercely fought military context ranging over a vast area stretching from Mangalore on the west coast to Arcot in the east.
  • ◦ He was able to capture almost the whole of Carnatic.
• • However, after 1781, tables started turning.
  • ◦ Battle of Porto Novo (1781): General Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali
  • ◦ British made peace with Marathas which enabled them to concentrate their entire military strength against Mysore.
• • In 1782, Hyder Ali died when the war was in full-swing. It was Tipu Sultan who took command of the war for its remaining duration (1782-84).
  • ◦ Tipu got big military successes at many places and hence British came under the pressure. Neither side was capable of overpowering the other completely.
  • ◦ At the same time, Madras was hit by a financial crunch. Thus, Lord Macartney, the Governor of Madras initiated peace talks. Tipu also needed time to consolidate his hold and strengthen administration. Thus, it remained an inconclusive War.
• • Treaty of Mangalore (1784)
  • ◦ Both sides restored all conquests. This treaty kept Tipu's kingdom and military intact. It was a respectable treaty for Tipu as there was no place for war compensation even in this treaty.
  • ◦ Although the British had been shown to be too weak to defeat Mysore, they had certainly proved their ability to hold their own in India.

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)

• • The Treaty of Mangalore was not enough to resolve the conflict. It was just a temporary respite before a final showdown.
• • The relationship between Tipu and Iran/France were improving, which threatened the British interests.
• • In 1789, Tipu invaded the state of Travancore, which was protected by British as per the Treaty of Mangalore (1784).
• • War:
  • ◦ Cornwallis came out to protect Travancore and sent an expedition led by General Meadows against Tipu. However, this expedition of unsuccessful.
  • ◦ Then, Cornwallis formed a Triple Alliance and succeeded in isolating Tipu diplomatically – Marathas and Nizams against Tipu along with British.
    • ■ The rulers of the states of Travancore, Cochin and Arcot were already hostile to Tipu.
  • ◦ Tipu was compelled to fight simultaneously on several fronts which overstretched his military resources. Still, he sustained the war for one long year. Finally, Tipu was comprehensively defeated in 1792 and had to make a treaty of Seringapatam.
• • Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)
  • ◦ Humiliating treaty for Tipu: he lost half of his region to the British, along with 3.3 crore rupees as war compensation.
  • ◦ Partition:
    • ■ British shared some regions submitted by Tipu with their allies. (Kadappa and some regions near Tungabadhra to Marathas, regions near Pennar river to Nizam)
    • ■ However, the most important regions at Cochin, Coorg and Malabar coast and places like Dindigul, Barmahal (Salem district) were brought under their own control.
    • ■ After that Lord Cornwallis very proudly made the statement that 'we have successfully crippled our enemy without making our friends too formidable'.
• • This war depleted Tipu's strength and destroyed his dominant position in the south and firmly established British supremacy there.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

• • French Menace
  • ◦ Wellesley was sent to India during when Napoleon was preparing for the invasion of Egypt and there was a possibility of French invasion of India and the danger of French revival in India. Wellesley was expressly sent to India to check the French menace.
• • British expansionism (policy of annexation)
  • ◦ Wellesley abandoned the policy of non-intervention pursued by his predecessor John Shore.
  • ◦ He tried bringing as many Indian states as possible under British control. By his arrival, the two strongest Indian powers (Mysore, Marathas), had declined in power; aggression was easy as well as profitable. And in that, the French menace provided good pretext.
  • ◦ Wellesley had no doubt about the legality or morality of his actions. His only objective was supremacy of the British in India.
• • Wellesley adopted three different methods to achieve his goal:
  • ◦ The method of war: 4th Anglo-Mysore, 2nd Anglo-Maratha
  • ◦ The method of Subsidiary Alliance
  • ◦ The method of Annexation: Surat, Tanjore, Carnatic

• • Tipu's spirit of resistance did not subside even when reduced to half. He was in the search of alternative method to counter the British.
  • ◦ French Connection
    • ■ Tipu developed three armouries – Mangalore, Wazirabad and Malidabad – with the French help.
    • ■ He entered in negotiations for an alliance with Revolutionary France. He hoisted French flag and hoisted Tree of Liberty in Seringpatanam. He subscribed to the Jacobin Club and preferred to call himself Citizen Tipu.
    • ■ Later, he even maintained correspondence with Napoleon.
    • ■ British were not prepared to accept Tipu's Francophile policy.
  • ◦ Tipu sent ambassadors to many regions including Mauritius, Constantinople, Afghanistan and Iran to forge an anti-British alliance.
• • Under the circumstances, the destruction of Tipu's power became even more urgent from the British viewpoint. Tipu was accused of plotting against the British with treasonable intent. Lord Wellesley decided to eliminate Tipu asap.
  • ◦ British attempted to persuade Tipu to sign Subsidiary Alliance but he refused.
  • ◦ Wellesley sent Arthur Wellesley and Major Stewart to crush the power of Tipu.
  • ◦ British forces attacked Seringapatnam in 1799. Although by now, Tipu was no match for the British, yet he fought valiantly. The battle of Seringpatnam was brief but fierce. Tipu died valiantly fighting in 1799. He was 48 years old.

Outcome

• • Nearly half of Tipu's kingdom was divided between Nizam and British. A small portion was restored to Wodeyars. They were made to sign the subsidiary alliance system.
• • Thus ended the independent Mysore state. It had taken the English 32 years to subjugate Mysore.
• • The fall of Mysore permanently brushed aside the threat of French revival in the Deccan.

Causes of the Downfall of Tipu

The downfall of Mysore has been attributed to Tipu's inability to handle the political situation as tactfully as Hyder Ali, if alive, would have done. "Haidar was born to create an Empire, Tipu to lose one." However, closer scrutiny of south India in the closing decades of the 18th century gives a much more complex picture.

• • Hyder had taken the advantage of the ongoing Anglo-French and Anglo-Maratha military contests in South India. However, the political situation in India and abroad had undergone qualitative transformation since the days of Hyder Ali.
• • By the time of Tipu;
  • ◦ By the time Tipu ascended to the throne, the English had ousted the French from India. Thus, Tipu's attempt to build up a broad anti-British front didn't succeed.
  • ◦ The British diplomatic gestures successfully re-aligned the Indian powers to suit the British interest.
    • ■ British made peace with the Marathas and thus concentrated exclusively against Tipu.
    • ■ By bringing Nizam, Travancore and Arcot on their side, British were able to isolate Tipu.
  • ◦ Thus, while the English received assistance from the indigenous powers, Tipu's attempt to secure foreign help was not successful. Tipu had to fight the British single handedly.
• • The British power in India was at its height by 1790s.
  • ◦ While Hyder relied heavily on the guerrilla tactics and cavalry forces to dislodge British infantry, Tipu depended on his artillery forces and tried to confront the British directly.
  • ◦ However, for the British, there was now a perennial supply of funds to sponsor continuous warfare and access to the most sophisticated firearms. The English succeeded here because they were better equipped.

Finally, sooner or later, the fall of Mysore was inevitable. Tipu didn't have power to reverse the forces of history. It is an irony of history that Tipu's life coincided with the British colonial expansion in India. With the surrender of all Indian powers, the English were all set on the road to paramountcy. Under these circumstances, it was not possible for Tipu's Mysore alone to retain its independence.

Anglo-Maratha Wars

UPSC CSE PYQs

First War

• • "Anglo-Maratha War covering nearly nine years from the murder of Narayan Rao to the Treaty of Salbai emphatically discloses the vitality of the Maratha nation which had not been exhausted either by the disaster of Panipat or the death of their great Peshwa Madhavrao." Comment. [1991, 20m]
• • The British "fought the First Maratha War in a period when their fortunes were at the lowest ebb". Comment. [1998, 20m]
• • "The Treaty of Salbai (1782) was neither honorable to the English nor advantageous to their interests." Comment. [2004, 20m]

Second War

• • "The Treaty of Bassein, 1802 was, a step which changed the footing on which we, the English stood in western India. It trebled the English responsibilities in an instant." Comment. [1983, 20m]
• • "Upon the whole, then, I conclude that the treaty of Bassein was wise, just and a politic measure." Comment. [1986, 20m] (Ramsay Muir)
• • "The treaty of Bassein, by its direct and indirect operations, gave the Company the Empire of India." Comment. [1993, 20m]
• • "Upon the whole, then, I conclude that the treaty of Bassein was wise, just and a politic measure." Comment. [2005, 20m]

Third War

• • "……. the hunt of the Pindaris became merged in the Third Maratha War." Comment. [1989, 20m]

Maratha Decline

• • Trace the course of the Anglo-Maratha relations in the first two decades of the nineteenth century. Account for the ultimate defeat of the Maratha power by the British. [1984, 60m]
• • How did the British establish their control over Maharashtra in the first two decades of the 19th century? Why did the Maratha challenge ultimately collapse? [1994, 60m]
• • "The Maratha polity disintegrated through internal stress." Critically examine. [2017, 10m]
• • While individually the Marathas were clever and brave, they lacked the corporate spirit so essential for national independence. Discuss with reasons. [2021, 10 Marks]

Maratha Confederacy — Peshwas

Peshwa	Period	Key Events
Balaji Vishwanath	1713-20	Resolved the Maratha civil war. Assisted the Syed Brothers in deposing the emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719.
Bajirao I	1720-40	Establishment of Hindu Pad Padshahi. Defeated Nizam multiple times (eg Palkhed, Bhopal). Conquest of Malwa, Rajputana, Gujarat. Attacked Delhi in 1737. Created Maratha Confederacy.
Nanasaheb (Balaji Bajirao)	1740-61	Extension in North, South, East – From Cuttock to Attock and Peshawar in 1758. Third Battle of Panipat 1761. Expansion of Pune city.
Madhavrao I	1761-72	Maratha Resurrection. Defeated Nizam in the battle of Rakshasabhuvan.
Narayanrao	1772-73	Assassinated by Gardi guards at the behest of Raghunathrao.
Raghunathrao	1773-74	Deposed by barbhai, fled for British protection. First Anglo-Maratha War.
Madhavrao II	1774-96	Appointed as infant by generals and ministers as regents. Era dominated by Nana Phadanvis.
Baji Rao II	1796-1802	Defeated by Holkar in the battle of Poona. Fled for British protection, provoked Second Anglo-Maratha War.
Amrit Rao	1802-03	Appointed by Holkar after defeating Peshwas and Scindia.
Baji Rao II	1803-18	Third Anglo-Maratha War – End of Maratha Confederacy.

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

During the period of Warren Hastings (1772-85), two important wars took place – First Anglo-Maratha War and the Second Anglo-Mysore War.

Background:

• • The Marathas had suffered a great setback when they were decisively beaten by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Battle of Panipat in 1761. The British, on the other hand, after consolidating their position in Bengal and Awadh, were looking for an opportunity to settle a score with them. The opportunity came when Raghunath Rao sought British help for becoming the Peshwa, as he was facing opposition from the Council of Regency headed by Nana Phadnavis.
  • ◦ Just after the untimely death of Madhavrao Peshwa, a series of court intrigues, conspiracies and counter-conspiracies started in the Maratha court, in order to control the gaddi of Peshwa.
  • ◦ Madhavrao was succeeded by his younger brother Narayanrao whose life was made difficult but uncle Raghunathrao (Raghoba, brother of Nanasaheb), who wanted to be Peshwa. However, he couldn't succeed in his designs due to the intervention of Nana Phadanvis.
  • ◦ So, out of sheer frustration, Raghoba sought British help. This conflict gave British a handle to interfere in Maratha politics.

Why exactly did British intervene?

• • Expansion to cotton producing region of western India.
• • Bombay was an important opium supply route.
• • Bombay officers adventured – Intervention into internal matters of Poona court, into the succession rights.

Treaty of Surat, 1775

British promised to help Raghunath Rao to become Peshwa in return of:

• • Control over Salsette and Bassein
• • Revenue of Surat and Broach
• • Acceptance to be consulted before making alliance with any other power.

The War:

• • In May 1775, an army contingent led by Col. Keating was dispatched to help Raghoba, thereby commencing the first Anglo-Maratha war.
• • However, Warren Hastings (GG of Bengal), however, was not consulted and thus didn't like the idea. He sent Col. Upton to mediate between the Marathas and the Bombay government.
  • ◦ This led to the Treaty of Purandar (1776) with Pune.
    • ■ British promised not to help Raghoba.
    • ■ British would get Salsette, while other regions would be vacated by both the parties.
• • Thus, the war halted. However, the Bombay officials were not satisfied with it. This prompted the Bombay presidency to resume the war once again.
• • However, the Marathas gained upper hand:
  • ◦ In the battle of Talegaon (1779), British were roundly defeated by the Marathas, and this led to the signing of the Treaty of Wadgaon (1779).
    • ■ This treaty led to the status quo ante bellum and Salsette went to Marathas again. All the benefits earned by British were lost.
  • ◦ The years of 1780-82 turned out to be a very difficult year for the British
    • ■ Nizam, Hyder, and Marathas joined hands against them due to diplomacy of Nana Phadanvis. (United Front).
    • ■ The Company was going through the administrative crisis in India, in the wake of Regulating Act (1773).
    • ■ The company was also facing a financial crunch as the revenue sources were not established properly.
    • ■ Moreover, the Company was not able to receive proper help from the home government which was pre-occupied in the American War of Independence.
• • However, the Treaty of Wadgaon was not accepted by Hastings. Now, British went on offensive, and Hastings sent resources from the Bengal Presidency.
  • ◦ Hastings created severe military pressure on Marathas and forced them to come to the table. Thus, was signed the Treaty of Salbai (1782). According to this treaty:
    • ■ Madhav Rao Narayan was recognized as the real Peshwa. The Company promised not to interfere in the internal matters of the Marathas.
    • ■ British got the control of Salsette, along with Elephanta Islands.
    • ■ British also established a foothold in the internal conflicts of Indian states.

With this treaty, the First Anglo-Maratha War ended. Thereafter, a 20 years-long peace prevailed between Marathas and the British. The British Company took advantage of this, isolated the state of Mysore and eliminated it. Thus, the treaty helped in neutralizing Marathas and breaking the alliance of Indian powers and defeat them one by one. Meanwhile the Marathas were gripped by internal dissension and local Maratha chiefs tried to expand their areas as much as possible, which obviously weakened the central Maratha authority.

Wellesley's Subsidiary Alliance

To achieve his expansionist goals, Lord Wellesley devised a system of subsidiary alliance. Although aggressive in nature, it was an extension of the policy of Ring-Fence. It was not an entirely novel idea, some of the elements were visible earlier.

• • Dupleix had a similar treaty with Hyderabad in 1740s
• • Clive concluded first such treaty with Shuja-ud-Daulah back in 1765
• • In 1787, Cornwallis signed Treaty with Carnatic which had brought its foreign policy of under British control.

Using the pretext of hyped French Menace to justify the aggression, the earlier practices were given a definite formal shape and systemic framework by Wellesley in the form of Subsidiary Alliance.

Before starting the final war with Mysore, Wellesley signed the first treaty with Hyderabad in 1798. It inaugurated the era of Subsidiary Alliance System.

After the capture of Mysore, all political entities in India were to be offered the option of submitting peacefully by becoming the part of the subsidiary alliance system, or of a military context if they resisted colonial domination. Wellesley used it to subordinate the Indian states to the paramount authority of the Company.

Sequence in which the Indian States entered Subsidiary Alliances with Lord Wellesley: Hyderabad (1798, 1800); Mysore, Tanjore (1799); Awadh, Arcot (1801); Peshwa (Marathas) (1802); Shinde, Bhosle, Gaekwads (Marathas) (1803-05)

Constituents of the Treaty

• • Permanent Army led by a British officer.
  • ◦ Stationed within the territory of the state, in order to protect from internal disorder and external aggression.
  • ◦ The state had no control over this army.
  • ◦ It was mandatory for the ally to disperse his own militia.
• • Payment of a subsidy: In cash (for smaller states) or ceded territory (for bigger states) to defray its expenses.
• • Posting a British Resident at his court.
  • ◦ Theoretically, the company was not allowed to interfere in the internal matters of the state but practically, this rule was almost always flaunted.
• • Control over external relations
  • ◦ Not to employ any European in service without consent.
  • ◦ Not to directly negotiate with any other Indian ruler.

Effects of the Treaty — For the British (Extremely useful):

• • It allowed company to gradually and silently disarm Indian states.
• • Maintain a large army at the cost of the Indian states.
• • This subsidiary force was stationed in the capitals of native states which were places of great strategic significance. The company could fight wars far away from their own territories.
• • Company now controlled the defense and foreign relations of the protected allies. The possibility of any native alliance against the company was eliminated.
• • It eliminated French threat in India because no French men could be recruited by a native ruler without the permission of the company.
• • This system allowed the company to ensure that only its favourites were sitting on throne of native state because at any time native ruler tried to threaten the interest of company he was immediately replaced. It transformed company into an arbitrator of Indian disputes because any kind of conflict involving native state was to be settled by English company. Thus, the Company could easily maintain its paramountcy over native states.

Effects of the Treaty — On Indian States (Devastating):

It proved to be extremely degenerative for Indian native states because native rulers purchased security at the cost of Independence and sovereignty.

• • The army was allegedly for the protection but, it turned the ruler into a tributary client.
  • ◦ Indian state virtually signed away its independence.
• • Disbandment of the local armies led to loss of livelihood for soldiers and officers.
• • On the one hand, the state was divested of its army and on the other hand, it had to pay for its own occupation.
• • British Resident interfered in the day-to-day administration.
• • The rulers of the protected states tended to neglect the interests of their people and to oppress them.
  • ◦ As a result, a situation of extreme maladministration developed in many native states.
• • Extremely high cost of subsidy – leading to diversion of disproportionate share of revenue and ultimate bankruptcy in many cases.
• • In external matters, the states lost all vestiges of sovereignty: it became subservient in diplomatic relations, could not employ foreign experts, or settle disputes with its neighbors.

This alliance proved to be very advantageous from the point of view of the English, both economically and militarily. The native states were gradually brought under the sovereign control of English company. It is commented that it was a trojan horse tactics of empire building. Arthur Wellesley was right in observing that 'our policy our arms have reduced all the powers of India to the state of mere cyphers.'

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05)

Background:

• • By the end of the 18th century, British had contained all other major powers in India.
• • By 1800, almost all the important Maratha leaders had passed away by this time. Next generation leadership was not so competent, lacked pragmatic program and involved in internecine conflict.
  • ◦ Haripant Phadke (1794), Ahilyabai Holkar (1795) passed away.
  • ◦ Mahadaji Shinde (1794) → Daulatrao Shinde
  • ◦ Tukojirao Holkar (1797) → Yashwantrao Holkar
  • ◦ Sawai Madhaorao (1795) → Baji Rao II
  • ◦ In March 1800 Nana Fadnavis, the Chief Minister at Poona, died. "With him", remarked Colonel Palmer, the British Residents at Poona, "departed all the wisdom and moderation of the Maratha Government".
• • Freed from Nana's vigilance, Baji Rao's worst qualities found a free play.
  • ◦ With his fondness for intrigue, the Peshwa sought to keep up his position by putting the Maratha chiefs one against another. However, Baji Rao was caught in the net of his own intrigues.
• • Both Daulat Rao Shinde and Jaswant Rao Holkar sought pre-eminence at Poona.
  • ◦ The internecine conflict between Shinde and Holkar made the Maratha fall almost inevitable.
  • ◦ Shinde-Holkar were competing to get influence over Peshwa. The Shinde prevailed at first and the Peshwa passed under his virtual control.
• • Holkar's victory over the Peshwa's forces in the year 1800 prompted the Peshwa Baji Rao II to accept the British offer of subsidiary alliance in 1802 by signing the Treaty of Bassein. (31 Dec 1802):
  • ◦ The Peshwa had to pay a huge sum as a subsidy.
    • ■ It included ceding a territory worth 26 lakh and control over Surat.
  • ◦ In return, the British were to guarantee the safety and security of Peshwas from internal and external dangers.
    • ■ British regiment stationed at Poona for payment of 26 lakh/annum.
    • ■ British resident stationed at Poona.
  • ◦ Peshwa agreed not to enter into any alliance with any other power without British consent.
    • ■ The foreign policy of Peshwas had to be conducted at the advice of British resident. British now obtained right to intervene in the internal matters of the Maratha confederacy, as the final arbiter.
    • ■ Specific clause: Differences between Peshwas-Nizam or Peshwas-Gaikwad to be resolved under British mediation.
      • ■ This marked the achievement of another object of Wellesley's policy, namely, that the state Hyderabad definitely passed under the Company's protection.
  • ◦ Military advantage:
    • ■ The Company's subsidiary troops were encamped at the capitals of the four Indian powers—at Mysore, Hyderabad, Lucknow and Poona.

In return, Arthur Wellesley restored the peshwa to Pune in May 1803. The leading Maratha state had thus become a client of the British. This treaty led to the Second Maratha War (1803–05).

The Treaty of Bassein did not establish the Company's political supremacy in India but certainly was an important milestone in that direction. Thus, Sidney Owen's remark that "the treaty by its direct and indirect operations gave the Company the Empire of India" merely contains the exaggeration of a true political phenomenon.

This British intervention into the internal matters irritated different members of the Confederacy. The national humiliation was too much for the Marathas. The Maratha chiefs rejected the treaty, which led to the second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05). Now even Peshwas realised his loss in the treaty and hence he started seeking support of Bhonsle & Scindia against the British.

Thus started the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1803.

• • In order to counter Maratha power, the British created two military commands: Northern command under Lord Lake & Southern command under Arthur Wellesley.
  • ◦ It was a major military confrontation, encompassing the large parts of the subcontinent. Deccan, MP, Gujarat, Karnataka, Odisha, Rajasthan, UP.
• • The first Phase of War:
  • ◦ Arthur Wellesley defeated Bhosle and Shindes in a series of battles.
  • ◦ Lake defeated Shinde in the battle of Aligarh, battle of Laswari in north India. Then, he captured Delhi (battle of Patparganj) and Agra.
    • ■ Symbolically, Mughal Emperor Shah Alam became free from the control of Maratha & fell under the control of the British.
    • ■ Under British protection the Mughal Emperors languished till the great revolt of 1857.
• • Subsidiary Alliance Treaties: Now, the treaties of subordination were imposed on a number of tributaries of the Marathas. British signed separate treaties with each of them.
  • ◦ Treaty of Devgaon with Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur.
  • ◦ Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon with Daulatrao Shinde.
    • ■ Later on, the revised treaty of Mustafapur (1805) was foisted upon Shindes.
  • ◦ Gaekwads had already concluded the Treaty of Cambey (1802)
  • ◦ Moreover, the British acquired the right to be the final arbiter in any disputes among the Maratha houses.
• • Second Phase: The war with Yashwant Rao Holkar continued till 1805. They fought the battle separately, along with Jats of Bharatpur. Thus, in the Second Phase of War, Holkars were defeated.
• • In the meantime, the Court of Directors in London realized the extravagance of the war and recalled Wellesley.
  • ◦ They sent Cornwallis again to India (1805) to curb expansionist policies of Wellesley, but he died after reaching in India.
  • ◦ Thus, George Barlow was sent as the new Governor-General who concluded peace with Holkar in 1805 (Treaty of Rajpurghat).
    • ■ With this, Holkars were forced to party away with a large part of Malwa to British.
• • Thus, the second Anglo-Maratha ended in stalemate, but only outwardly.
  • ◦ The English conquest of Delhi, apart from other gains, considerably enhanced their prestige and put them in the forefront of the Indian political scene. They also gained ascendency at Pune.
  • ◦ For all practical purposes, a large chunk of Maratha territory was now under British control, through Peshwa or through other leaders who had signed the subsidiaries treaties.
  • ◦ However, the Maratha power had been shattered though not completely annihilated.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18)

Causes:

• • The settlement of 1803 treaties provided some amount of stability under British domination for about a decade.
  • ◦ The breathing time that the Marathas had got after Wellesley's recall in 1805 was not utilized by them for strengthening their power but wasted in mutual conflicts.
• • The arrival of Lord Hastings in 1813 turned out to be a major landmark in the evolution of British imperialism, which now became even more aggressive.
  • ◦ He resumed the threads of aggressive policy abandoned in 1805 and was determined to proclaim British Paramountcy in India.
• • The Company wanted to capture Poona for strategic importance.
• • A certain arrangement was evolved by the British whereby Bajirao II remained to be Peshwa, but without power.
• • Now, the Peshwa made the last-ditch effort to salvage the situation. The War erupted when there was a reaction from Maratha side. Peshwa Baji Rao tried to unite all Maratha chiefs against the British which led to the war of 1817-18.

Pindari War (1817-18)

• • The final Anglo-Maratha overlapped with a large-scale campaign against the Pindaris. In fact, the so called Pindari menace provided the pretext and justification for military mobilization against the Marathas.
• • Pindaris created a law-and-order situation for the British.

Lord Hastings decided to eliminate them. For him, annihilation of Pindaris was a prerequisite to the destruction of the Marathas. He formed a task force for the same purpose in 1816. They were surrounded by an army of about 120,000 men, which converged upon them from Bengal, the Deccan, and Gujarat under the supreme command of the Governor-General Lord Hastings (northern command) and LG T. Hislop (southern command).

The sheer military might of the Company resulted in victory. The Pindaris themselves offered little resistance. Their bands simply dissolved and there was no direct encounter. Most of the leaders surrendered or died.

Hastings used Pindari campaign as a pretext to attack Marathas. After finishing the Pindari campaign, Lord Hastings asked Maratha commanders to sign new treaty and when they hesitated a war was declared on them immediately. Thus, along with the Pindaris, even Marathas became the target of the same army.

The Peshwa was defeated at Khirki, Bhonsle's army routed at Sitabaldi and Holkar's army crushed at Mahidpur.

Consequence

• • The Marathas were badly beaten in the third Anglo-Maratha war, which finally ended the independence of the Maratha states – Nagpur, Indore, Gwalior, Baroda – and made the EIC a major territorial power in western and central India.
• • The Peshwa's authority was terminated and his seat of authority, Pune, formally became part of the Company's territory.
  • ◦ Bajirao II formally abdicated his office and was sent to Bithur with an annual pension of 8 lakh.
  • ◦ The gaddi of Peshwa was abolished and region of Maharashtra (including Pune) was completely annexed.
  • ◦ However, to assuage the feelings of Maratha spirit, a separate state of Satara was carved out and granted to Pratap Singh, a descendant of Shivaji.
  • ◦ The annexation of Poona to the Bombay presidency led to its restructuring in 1818.
• • Although Maratha Confederacy was dissolved, the Shindes, Halkars, Gaikwads and Bhosles still retained large tracts of territory at the end of the war, being incorporated into the British India empire as princely states.
• • The defeat of the Marathas opened the road for establishing the Company's paramountcy over the Rajputana region.
• • Thus, the Maratha dream of inheriting the Mughal imperial mantle was finally dashed to the ground.

Reasons for the eventual Downfall of the Maratha

The Marathas could not offer an alternative to Mughal rule. The political vacuum left behind by the Mughals was eventually filled up by the British power and thus, the dream of founding a Maratha empire was shattered.

The initial military success of the Maratha Kingdom could be attributed to the extraordinary political acumen of Shivaji and the first three Peshwas. Thereafter, the Maratha power declined and went down in the face of repeated British onslaughts.

Reasons for the failure of the Maratha:

• • No great/capable leader by the 1800s.
  • ◦ By the end of the 18th century, all the talented and experienced leaders like Mahadaji Sindia, Tukoji Holkar, Nana Phadnis were dead. Baji Rao II was selfish and inefficient. The absence of a good leader led to mutual quarrels and factionalism among the Marathas and quickened their decline.
  • ◦ On the other hand, the East India Company was lucky in having the services of able persons like Elphinstone, John Malcolm Colonel Colins, Jonathan Ducan, Arthur Wellesley (later on the conqueror of Napoleon), Lord Lake and above all Richard Wellesley.
• • Nana Phadanvis and Tipu's plans to combine Indian powers together in a grand coalition ultimately foundered, because of mutual disputes.
• • Superior English Diplomacy: The English were superior to the Marathas in the game of diplomacy. Before actual operations would start the Company would take care to win allies and isolate the enemy diplomatically.
• • Superior English Espionage: The Marathas were careless about military intelligence.
  • ◦ On the contrary, the Company's spy system was perfect. Palmer wrote in December 1798, "I consider it as the duty of every British subject in this country, however situated, to contribute to the utmost of his power, to the stock of general information".
• • There were long-term changes in the character of the Maratha state.
  • ◦ The extension of Maratha empire beyond its natural boundaries led to the change in the character of the Maratha state and led to the creation of Maratha confederacy.
  • ◦ Maratha Confederacy's members were in conflict with each other. Even during the hour of crisis, they couldn't unite.
• • Factionalism within Pune court led to its inability to control the confederacy under check.
• • Marathas' source of income was unreliable. They mostly relied on the 'Chauth' and the 'Sardeshmukhi', rather than creating productive assets.
  • ◦ The Maratha chiefs had to resort to periodic raids and plunder to run their economy. This economic insolvency also exerted an evil influence on the political stability of the empire.
  • ◦ In the absence of any industry or foreign trade openings, fighting was the only lucrative opening for the youth. War became the 'national industry' of the Marathas and recoiled on the economy of the state.
• • Although, the Marathas discarded their traditional warfare techniques and adopted the European techniques, they lagged in the British in these warfare methods.
  • ◦ The Maratha military supremacy owed its success to guerilla tactics and the use of cavalrymen. But the later Maratha leaders opted for the western method of warfare. Sir Alfred Lyall in his book "Rise and Expansion of British Power in India" states that the abandonment of the guerilla system of warfare was a cardinal mistake of the Marathas.
    • ■ It is further contended that the neglect of cavalry on the part of the Shinde and concentration on artillery and infantry affected adversely the mobility of the army, depriving it of the chief advantage it had possessed against the armies of the Mughals.
  • ◦ However, the Maratha fault lay not in abandoning the guerilla system of warfare, but in inadequate adoption of the modem techniques of warfare. They could not, integrate the two. As a result, the Maratha method of warfare became partly foreign, partly vernacular.
  • ◦ The Marathas neglected the paramount importance of artillery.
    • ■ Mahadaji Sindhia deserves the credit of trying to fight the enemy with the enemy's weapons. His battalions were trained on the European model and factories were set up for the manufacture of fire-arms, but these departments were entirely in the hand of foreigners whose loyalty in times of need was always in doubt.
    • ■ The Poona Government also set up an artillery department, but it hardly functioned effectively.
• • Lack of modernity
  • ◦ Maratha state was essentially medieval in nature. Marathas failed to evolve modern institutions and lacked the ability to adapt to new circumstances.
    • ■ Jadunath Sarkar contends that there were inherent defects in the character of the Maratha state. The religio-national movement which had worked in the destruction of the Mughal Empire in the seventeenth century had spent itself in the process of expansion of the Maratha Empire.
  • ◦ Social backwardness:
    • ■ J.N. Sarkar points out that growth of orthodoxy and Brahmin-Maratha differences sapped the vitality of the state.
  • ◦ The Maratha sardars did not have the farsightedness to develop a new economy.
  • ◦ The Maratha rulers could not realise the importance of science or technology or did not take interest in trade and industry.

When the English attacked the Marathas, the latter were already past the prime of their power. The Maratha power had lost its early vigour and momentum. Thus, the English attacked a 'divided house' which started crumbling at the first push.

UPSC CSE PYQs

Sindh

• • “We have no right to seize Sind, yet we shall do so and a very advantageous, useful, humane piece of rascality it will be.” Comment. [1984, 20m]
• • “We have no right to seize Sind, yet we shall do so, and a very advantageous, useful and human piece of rascality it will be.” Comment. [1990, 20m]
• • “The British conquest of Sind was both a political and moral sequel to the first Afghan war.” Comment. [1995, 60m]
• • Sir Charles Napier said, “We have no right to seize Sind, yet we shall do so, and a very advantageous, useful, humane piece of rascality it will be.” Comment. [2000, 20m]

Punjab

• • “Punjab’s fate after Ranjit Singh was foredoomed as the impulse of neo-Victorian Imperialism was bound to overwhelm it”. Elucidate [2010, 20m]
• • “Annexation of Punjab was part of a broad north-west frontier policy set in motion after the exit of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.” Critically examine [2015, 10 Marks]
• • Underline the major considerations of the British imperial power that led to the annexation of Punjab. [2017, 10m]
• • “Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1839. His death was the signal for an outburst of anarchy all over the Punjab.” Critically examine. [2020, 10 Marks]
• • ‘The Treaty of Amritsar (1809) was significant for its immediate as well as potential effects.’ Critically examine. [2022, 10m]

Phase of Industrial Capitalism (1813-58)

Objective: To convert India as a market for British manufactured goods and the supplier of raw materials

• • Political Policy: To bring the maximum number of states under direct control. (Paramountcy and Annexationism)
• • Administrative Policy: Substantial changes in the administrative structure
• • Economic Policy: Commercialization of Agri, Deindustrialization, Free Trade, Drain of Wealth
• • Social Policy: Reforms through English Education and Law (civilizing mission)
• • Cultural Policy: Liberals, Utilitarians, Evangelism

Inauguration of aggressive British imperialism in India

There was a significant change in the nature of British imperialism in the early part of the 19th century. One can trace the beginning from the time of Lord Wellesley (1798-1805), but he was discouraged by the authorities in London. As the London was unsatisfied with Wellesley’s costly programme of conflict and expansion, he was repatriated from India. However, the policy started changing decisively after 1810s.

With the arrival of Lord Hastings as the Governor of Bengal (1813-1823), the nature and character of British policies in India changed significantly. Hereafter the vision of extensive British Empire guided the actions and policies of British rulers both in India as well as in London.

Reasons

• • By this time, British had captured extensive territories. Roots of British in India became very strong. Once the Marathas were completely defeated in 1805, the British became more aggressive.
• • There was also a change in the policy of the British authorities in London. they were now becoming more supportive of aggression.
  • ◦ In continental Europe, the threat of Napoleon to British dominance had also subsided by mid-1810s.
• • There was an Economic logic for aggressive policy
  • ◦ With the beginning of Industrial capitalism, there was a need to convert India as a market for British manufactured goods and the supplier of raw materials. The industrial revolution heightened the need for resources to sustain economic growth.
  • ◦ Also, after conquering Ganga basin completely, British now turned their greedy gaze towards Indus valley. Control of the Indus valley was seen as not only economically lucrative but also as a gateway to the Central Asia.
• • Victorian neo-imperialism (from 1830s onwards)
  • ◦ There was a sense of national pride and competition among European powers. Acquiring colonies was often seen as a measure of a nation’s strength and prestige.
• • In the 1830s, there was the beginning of The Great Game.
  • ◦ It was a rivalry between the 19th century British and Russian Empires over influence in Asia, primarily in Afghanistan, Persia, and later Tibet.
  • ◦ Britain feared Russia’s southward expansion would threaten the India possession. As a result, British made it a high priority to protect all approaches to India, to stop Russian expansion towards India.
    • ■ To protect India, Britain aimed to create a protectorate in Afghanistan, and support the Ottoman Empire, Persia, Khiva, and Bukhara as buffer states against Russian expansion.
  • ◦ British also wanted to protect sea trade routes by blocking Russia from gaining a port on the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean.

Overall, this era was characterized by an aggressive pursuit of economic interests, the consolidation of political control, and the imposition of Western values on the Indian subcontinent. Thus, the British expanded in two ways: by more interfering in princely states to depose the rulers and by following aggressive war policy at the frontiers.

(A) Internally: Interference through the Paramountcy

• • In 1813 came governor-general Hastings of Moira who spelt out the certain notion of paramountcy.
  • ◦ He demanded British must be recognised as supreme and sovereign power in India. He aimed to assert British supremacy over all Indian native states.
  • ◦ Paramountcy vis-à-vis Princely states:
    • ■ The policy asserted the Governor General’s right to intervene in the internal affairs of the Indian princely states, and to supersede their authority if necessary. It is a claim to overlordship.
    • ■ Theoretically, it tried to establish the superior authority of the British Empire over the princely states which were tied in treaty relationship with the with the company. So, even the large states like Hyderabad had to listen to the dictates of the Company.
    • ■ In the long run, paramountcy also involved more direct intervention of the British to the point of the government of the princely states being directly taken over by the British authorities. So, in the long run, paramountcy threatened the existence of the princely states altogether. (justification for annexation)
  • ◦ This trend climaxed in the 1830s-40s.
    • ■ Lord William Bentick (1828-35) annexed Mysore, Central/Northern Cachar and Jaintia etc.
    • ■ During 1848 when governor-general Dalhousie embarked on a systematic policy of annexation of the territories of many of the more prominent princely states. The annexation of Awadh (1856) finally led to the outbreak of the revolt of 1857.

(B) Externally, aggressive policy territorial expansion was pursued

Policy of territorial expansion was pursued aggressively. All those native states were wipe out that tried to challenge the British dominance in India. Hereafter, the Wars and Battles were not fought for defensive purpose, but they guided by aggressive imperialistic designs.

As part of its long-term objective of bringing under imperial control the frontier the Indian subcontinent, the East India Company tried to extend its empire in North, East and West.

• • Lord Hastings (1813-23): Third Anglo Maratha War
• • Himalayan region: Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) by Lord Hastings
• • Northeast: Lord Amherst (1823-28) annexed of Assam, and led the British in First Anglo-Burmese War (Treaty of Yandabo 1826)
• • Northwest:
  • ◦ Lord Auckland (1836-42): First Anglo-Afghan War (1839)
  • ◦ Lord Ellenborough (1842-44): Annexation of Sindh (1843)
  • ◦ Lord Hardinge (1844-48): First Anglo-Sikh War (1845)
  • ◦ Lord Dalhousie (1848-56): Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848)
  • ◦ Lord Lytton (1876-80): Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878)

Thus, the policy of British in the Northwest must be situated in this larger historical backdrop of a new kind of imperialism which was becoming more aggressive, more interfering, more conscious about the security of the empire.

Afghanistan — The Graveyard of Imperial powers

• • Shah Shuja, the ruler of Afghanistan was expelled from Afghanistan by Shah Mahmud (1809). From 1815 onwards Shah Shuja resided at Ludhiana.
• • Failed attempt of Shah Shuja to re-capture power:
  • ◦ Dost Mohammad, came to power in 1826.
  • ◦ Shah Shuja he launched an invasion of eastern Afghanistan. However, in the middle of 1834 Shuja was defeated by Dost Mohammad at Kandahar.

Auckland’s Forward Policy in Afghanistan

• • Soon after Auckland (1836-42) assumed office, there was sustained propaganda of Russophobia in India and Britain to justify the forward policy in Afghanistan.
• • Initially, Alexander Burnes, was deputed to Kabul in 1837 on a so-called commercial mission. However, he was unsuccessful in diplomatic negotiations with Dost Mohammad due to the issue of control of Peshawar.
• • It was now decided by the Company that Dost Mohammad needed to be overthrown and for that, Shah Shuja was given active help.
  • ◦ As a prelude to the implementation of this scheme a treaty was signed between Shah Shuja, Ranjit Singh, and the British (Tripartite Treaty of 1838).
  • ◦ According to the original plan, Ranjit Singh was to render military support to Shah Shuja to enable him to acquire control over Afghanistan. In return, Shuja was to renounce claims over those territories of Afghanistan which had been acquired by the Punjab kingdom, particularly Peshawar.
  • ◦ Eventually, it was decided that British troops would accompany Shuja on his march to Kabul.
• • The death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, and the uncertainties of succession in the Punjab kingdom, made Shuja even more dependent on the British.

First Anglo-Afghan War

• • The Punjab army was to march from Peshawar to Kabul via the Khyber Pass. But it couldn’t move beyond Peshawar.
• • The Company’s contingents, which now constituted the main force – Army of the Indus – was to take a southerly route through Sind and Baluchistan and proceed to Kabul through the Bolan Pass in 1839.
• • Initial British Victory (1839)
  • ◦ The Army of the Indus was able to occupy Kandahar and Ghazni on its way to Kabul.
  • ◦ Dost Mohammad retreated from Kabul as the British army approached the city; and Shah Shuja was proclaimed as the ruler.
  • ◦ Soon, they became complacent without noticing Afghan discontent.
• • British stuck in Kabul
  • ◦ It soon became apparent that the new ruler could not maintain his position without continuing British presence. Thus, it was decided that the British force would stay on for some time.
  • ◦ Two worries:
    • ■ A prolonged stay in Afghanistan was financially unviable.
    • ■ Punjab was unwilling to allow the British army to march through its territory.
• • As Dost Muhammad was powerful → Negotiation.
  • ◦ Despite British presence, Dost Mohammad was able to gather sufficient supporters.
  • ◦ However, since his forces were too small for a sustained offensive, he decided to negotiate with the British. The British authorities agreed to his voluntary exile in India. He was placed under virtual house arrest in Mussoorie.
• • Still, the situation continued to deteriorate despite the exile of Dost Mohammad. By 1841, there was widespread unrest and troops had to be constantly rushed to put down armed rebellions.
• • Retreat of the British Army (1842)
  • ◦ Soon, the Army of the Indus commenced its retreat in January 1842.
  • ◦ It met with stiff opposition from local tribal communities
  • ◦ Almost the entire British force of nearly 16,000 men, was wiped out much before reaching Jalalabad.
• • The First Afghan War was the most comprehensive defeat the British faced in their colonial wars during the nineteenth century, and one in which they suffered huge losses. British prestige was heavily damaged.
• • The final catastrophe for the British cause was the assassination of Shah Shuja in April 1842. it was decided that Dost Mohammad be released so that he could return to power in Afghanistan. Upon his return to Kabul, Dost Mohmammad once again became the ruler of Afghanistan and reigned till his death in 1863.

The First Afghan War thus ended in a colossal defeat for the British. This was perhaps the worst military disaster for the British during their expansionist drive in the first half of the nineteenth century.

Sindh (Talpur)

The Afghan War had created conditions for the conquest of Sind. The process which finally led to the annexation of the region was set in motion just as British forces retreated from Afghanistan.

Causes behind Sindh’s Annexation

• • Russophobia:
  • ◦ To counter Russian expansion in NW of India
  • ◦ Sind was passing through a phase of internal crisis it could have easily target for Russians.
• • Tail of Afghan War:
  • ◦ After the defeat in the First Afghan War, the Company lost influence in Afghanistan. It was thus necessary for the company to strengthen its defence on Afghanistan-Sind border by annexing Sind.
  • ◦ Afghan expedition was a blow to British prestige. They wanted to restore it by annexing Sindh.

In the early nineteenth century Sind was ruled by chiefs/amirs of the Talpur clan.

The colonial penetration of Sind

Sind was an independent state and the John Company had friendly relations with Sind. The Company repeatedly promised to protect unity and integrity of Sindh.

• • For the first time the English company came into contact with Sind in 1775 when it set up 1st factory at Thatta. This factory was abandoned in 1792 due to commercial reasons.
• • French Menace → Early Treaties
  • ◦ During the Napoleonic Wars, a treaty (1809) was signed with the amirs under which they agreed not to allow the French into the region.
  • ◦ This was followed up by another treaty in 1820 intended to exclude all Europeans (and Americans) from Sind.
• • Commercial Explorations → Treaty of 1832
  • ◦ Alexander Burnes’ brother James visited Hyderabad in the late 1820s and published an account of his stay at the court of Hyderabad.
  • ◦ It was in the early 1830s that the British began to systematically gather information about Sind. Alexander Burnes’s espionage mission of 1831 was the first major attempt to explore the lower Indus.
  • ◦ Treaty of 1832 – A more substantial treaty was concluded in 1832 which compelled the amirs to open up their territories, the river Indus particularly, to commerce. This marked the beginning of regular British intervention in the affairs of the Sind.
• • Punjab politics → Treaty of 1838
  • ◦ The southward expansion of the Punjab kingdom in the direction of northern Sind lent urgency to British manoeuvres.
    • ■ In 1836, Ranjit Singh was planning to occupy the city of Shikarpur in northern Sind. The threat to occupy Shikarpur was meant to pressurize the amirs to pay the tribute.
  • ◦ At this point, the British intervened and offered their ‘protection’ to the amirs, forcing another treaty (1838) on them.
    • ■ Henry Pottinger, played a prominent role in the 1830s in undermining the authority of the Sind amirs.
• • Afghan Expedition → Treaty of 1839
  • ◦ During Kabul expedition, Karachi was occupied in 1839, following which another treaty was signed with the amirs under which they were forced to accept a subsidiary force and pay Rs 3 lakhs per annum towards its expenses.

Role of Charles Napier

Shortly after Ellenborough took over as governor general, Charles Napier, a senior British military officer, was appointed the Company’s supreme military commander and Resident in Sind and given wide-ranging political authority. It was he who created circumstances and led the process of annexation of Sindh.

• • Napier conducted a farcical inquiry into allegations of secret support by Sindh amirs to anti-British activities. Finding the amirs guilty, he imposed a new treaty with onerous and unacceptable conditions, which was sure to be refused.
• • At the same time the British made use of a factional tussle at Khairpur to support one side against another, which led to the popular spontaneous resistance.

Thus started the war in which Amirs were swiftly defeated. Sind was annexed by the British. Napier was made governor of the province.

The Punjab

Aggressive policy of paramountcy, and Russophobia as security challenge to the Indian possessions of the British Empire came face to face with a situation in Punjab after the collapse of Ranjit Singh’s Kingdom.

British intervention in this region in 1840s was provoked by the fear of a troubled frontier. Russian intervention in the region (Russophobia) persuaded the British to constantly recalibrate its Punjab policy.

• • Earlier Policy – To prop-up Ranjit Singh’s regime as a possible bulwark/barrier against possible Russian invasions through Afghanistan.
• • Later Policy – Once Ranjit Singh’s Kingdom collapsed, and instability became rampant, and this policy had to be changed.

Rise of the Sikhs – Ranjit Singh (Punjab Kesari)

This Sikh polity had the memory of anti-Mughal resistance as in ideology and faced the military compulsion of containing the Afghans. This demanded the emergence of a more organized and more powerful leadership.

At the end of the 18th century, Zaman Shan, a successor of Abdali in Afghanistan was invading north India regularly. So, it was this necessity of resistance to Afghans that eventually made for the rise of Ranjit Singh possible. Ranjit Singh, by dint of his leadership, competency and muscle power, fused the various Sikh misls into a powerful state.

• • Born in 1780, he assumed the leadership of the sukarchakia misl at the age of 12 after the premature death of his father.
• • His main source of strength was his army. He modelled it on European style, on East India Company’s army. It became the second largest army in Asia.
  • ◦ Ranjit Singh was a military adventurer, and he knew that military superiority was the key to power. He laboured hard to build up a disciplined, well-armed military force along modern lines.
  • ◦ He appointed European military experts to train his soldiers.
  • ◦ The cavalry was well organized.
  • ◦ He set up modern manufacturing units to manufacture cannons.
  • ◦ The racial composition of his army and administration was heterogeneous. He recruited both the Hindus and the Muslims.
• • He also introduced the system of vassalage – all these great Sikh sardars in other places were enticed to be his vassals.
• • Initially, Ranjit Singh was firmly established in Lahore in 1799 then Amritsar came under his control in 1805. The control over the holy city of Amritsar gave him a certain advantage. Thus, both the political and religious capital of Sikhism was under him.
• • Shortly thereafter, he forced all the Sikh chiefs west of the river Sutlej to acknowledge him as the King of Punjab and thus created a unified state.

This powerful Kingdom was capable of generating a measure of prosperity as well.

• • It was natural for Ranjit Singh to look after irrigation facilities for the peasants because ultimately rural peasantry (esp. Jat Sikhs) was the main support base.
• • At the same time, Ranjit Singh brought order and security to the region was beleaguered by invasions and instability for a long time. There began the trade revival which brought more prosperity, greater income and propelled the artisanal industry.

So, this is how the basis of a powerful kingdom was created. It was not just a kind of a military state. It could draw on huge economic resources (agriculture, trade revival, handicraft revival) which gave Ranjit Singh the kind of power that he was able to wilt over the entire region.

Relations with the English

As early as 1800, the English, fearing an Afghan invasion of India under Zaman Shah, had requested that the Maharaja should not join Zaman Shah in case he invaded India.

In 1805 Jaswant Rao Holkar hotly pursued by Lord Lake came to Amritsar and solicited Ranjit Singh to make a common cause against the English. Ranjit Singh at that time did not think it prudent to incur the hostility of the English. In 1806, Ranjit Singh signed a treaty of friendship with General Lake agreeing to force Jaswant Rao Holkar to leave Amritsar. General Lake, in turn, promised that the English would never form any plans for the seizure of Ranjit Singh’s possessions and property.

Treaty of Amritsar (1809)

• • Ranjit Singh’s ambition to acquire the Cis-Sutlej territories brought him face to face with the English East India Company.
  • ◦ After successfully uniting the Sikhs on the west bank of the Sutlej, Ranjit turned to bring the Cis-Sutlej states under his control.
  • ◦ When he tried to capture cis-Sutlej, these states applied British for help to safeguard their independence.
• • At this time, the Punjab had become particularly important from the British point of view as they apprehended possible joint Franco-Russian invasion into India through land-route via Afghanistan. They had been so far watching Ranjit Singh’s expansionist policy with a deep sense of concern. Now, they responded quickly.
  • ◦ British officer at Ludhiana, David Ochterlony, declared the states under British patronage and provided protection. It was an open warning to Ranjit Singh to control his ambition by threat with open conflict.
• • Ranjit Singh finally entered into the Treaty of Amritsar with EIC. By this treaty:
  • ◦ Ranjit Singh was forced to give up all his claims on the Cis-Sutlej states which were to be henceforth under the protection of the British. (British sphere of influence)
  • ◦ In return, the British too, acknowledged Ranjit Singh’s sovereign authority on the western side of Sutlej.
  • ◦ So far, in the east, Ranajit Singh’s domain was confined upto Sutlej.

The Treaty of Amritsar was important for its immediate as well as potential effects.

• • It checked one of the most cherished ambitions of Ranjit Singh to extend his rule over the entire Sikh nation, living east or west of the river Sutlej.
• • The treaty also gave Ranjit Singh a carte blanche so far as the region to the west of Sutlej was concerned.
  • ◦ With the disappearance of all danger from the English, the Maharaja directed his energies towards the west and captured Multan (1818), Kashmir (1819) and Peshawar (1834).
• • In its ultimate effects the treaty showed the weak position of Ranjit Singh vis-a-vis the Company.
  • ◦ The British were brought close to the frontier of the Lahore kingdom and this brought the danger of war nearer.
  • ◦ Besides, the treaty gave the Company a degree of control over Ranjit Singh’s relations with the neighbouring states of Sind, Bahawalpur and Afghanistan.
• • The relations of Raja Ranjit Singh with the Company, from 1809 to 1839, clearly indicate the former’s weak position.
  • ◦ The Company forestalled the moves of Ranjit Singh on Sind.
  • ◦ The fear of Russian advances in Central Asia led the English to occupy and later build a cantonment at Ferozepur in 1835. The stationing of British troops at that strategic town worried Ranjit Singh but his protest went unheeded.
  • ◦ In 1838, Ranjit Singh was compelled by political compulsions to sign the Tripartite Treaty with the English; however he refused to give passage to the British army through his territories to attack Dost Mohammad, the Afghan Amir.
  • ◦ “Ranjit Singh feared to expose the kingdom that he created to the risk of war with the Company and chose instead the policy of yielding, yielding and yielding.” (NK Sinha)

The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) – Lord Hardinge (1844-1848)

The causes of the Anglo-Sikh war were both strategic and economic. So far as Ranjit Singh was alive, he checked the ambitions of local nobles and controlled the army. However, his death in 1839 was followed by a period of political uncertainty, family rivalry, conspiracies and factionalism.

• • A series of weak rulers sat on throne one after another.
• • Sikh court was divided into two factions – who wanted to be kingmakers. It created disorder.
• • Maharaja Ranjit Singh had created the 2nd biggest army in entire Asia but after his death there was a division between civil authority and military authority.

Sikh Emperors after Ranjit Singh:

• • 1839 – Kharak Singh (eldest son): He was one of Ranajit Singh’s sons and became the ruler as per the desire of Ranajit Singh himself. However, Kharak Singh didn’t have a long life.
• • 1839–1840 – Nau Nihal Singh: Kharak Singh died on 5 November 1839; Nau Nihal Singh (his own son) died on the same day when a gateway, likely accidentally, fell on him.
• • 1841–1843 – Sher Singh: With the support of now-influential Dhyan Singh, Sher Singh, a half-brother of Kharak Singh, became the next maharaja in 1841. But Sher Shah was assassinated in 1843 by the rival family group, and soon Dhyan Singh too was killed.
• • 1843–1849 – Duleep Singh (youngest son): The army now supported the claim of Dalip Singh, the youngest son of Ranjit Singh, to be the maharaja. Rani Jindan (his mother) became regent for the minor maharaja. The strong support of the army ensured the ascendancy of Rani Jindan in the years between the accession of Dalip Singh and the First Punjab War.

This internal political turmoil was watched by the British. In fact, they had been throwing their greedy glances on trans-Sutlej area since the days of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The recent situation of relative instability created an opening for them. This led to an important change in British policy. There was now a departure from the position that the British had taken in 1809 in the Treaty of Amritsar.

Ever since the Treaty of Amritsar, the Company had been gradually infiltrating the state apparatus of the Punjab kingdom through espionage and diplomacy, so that Punjab had already become vulnerable to its manoeuvres by 1839. Following Ranjit Singh’s death, dissensions were encouraged at the Lahore court, allowing the British to easily undermine the authority of the ruling elite.

• • Major Broadfoot was appointed as the British agent in 1844. He provoked the khalsa army by repeatedly insulting and alienating the Sikh sardars and army officials.

Sikhs too started preparations to counter a possible British attack.

• • By this time, the Khalsa/Sikh army had become somewhat independent of the control of the palace or of the control of the rulers. It was without a General or at any rate without one supreme controlling mind.
• • At the time, selfish and traitorous people controlled the government at Lahore. Rani Jindan, under the influence of a section of the civilian chiefs who wanted to weaken the army, ordered the army to strike at the British.

The governor general, Henry Hardinge, who had succeeded Ellenborough in 1844, declared war on 13 December 1845. Sikh Army crossed the river, and the wars were fought. The First Punjab War dragged on for nearly two months. Eventually the Sikh Army lost out.

However, the Panjab was not annexed in February 1846. Given the kind of resistance that the British encountered from the Sikhs, the Company realized that the Khalsa army had been defeated, but not annihilated. This would have involved prolonged fighting for which the British lacked the strength for the time being. There was also a deficit in the Indian treasury and the hot season was ahead. So, the company gave up the idea of immediately annexing Punjab. Hardinge rather decided to follow a moderate policy but use the victory to weaken the kingdom politically, to such an extent that its absorption would be a matter of time.

In 1846, the Sikh court had to sign the Treaty of Lahore.

• • Subsidiary Alliance Treaty
• • The size of the Khalsa army was reduced to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry.
• • The British Army was stationed at Lahore for some time.
• • A British resident was appointed in the Sikh court.
• • British were to be indemnified with Rs 1.5 crores for the expenses of the war
• • British took possession of the fertile Jullundhar Doab (between Sutlej and Beas)
• • Sikhs had to lose a large area including Kashmir. Kashmir was sold to a Dogra Sardar Gulab Singh for 50 Lakh rupees.

Tensions soon surfaced between the resident at Lahore, Henry Lawrence, and the regent, Rani Jindan. A new supplementary treaty (Treaty of Bhyrowal) was signed in December 1846 to strengthen the position of the resident.

• • A council of regency was constituted, comprising eight Punjab chiefs. The council was to function under the supervision of the resident.
• • British troops were to remain in Punjab, for whose maintenance Rs 22 lakhs had to be paid annually.
• • This arrangement would continue till 1854 when Dalip Singh came of age.

With this, the position of Rani Jindan was marginalized. In August 1847, Rani Jindan was compelled to leave Lahore so as to curtail her influence. Now, British resident was practically running the Sikh state after the first war. Duleep Singh was just a nominal ruler. With this, the British control over domestic policy and foreign policy was established in a Sikh state. Sikhs lost their autonomy.

The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1849) – Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)

The Treaty of Lahore could not satisfy the British imperialist appetite. So, another conflict was inevitable.

On the other hand, the freedom loving Sikhs were not happy with the Treaty of Lahore. The prominent presence of the British the resident trying to control the government, to undermine the Council of Regency, to pension of Rani Jindan; all this created a certain kind of grievance in the Punjab and there was resistance against it. What really worried the Sikhs was the presence of the British army in the Punjab. Thus, there was a Sikh revolt in 1848, a series of rebellions in Multan and Lahore led by Mulraj and Chattar Singh respectively.

Lord Dalhousie came to India in 1848 and started his aggressive imperial policy. He undertook the annexation of Punjab in 1849. This annexation was a logical outcome of the opportunities of interference that British got after 1846 Treaty.

The situation in several areas of Punjab was unstable, and often the Lahore authorities had to rely on the Company’s apparatus to deal with problems. Once the preparations for the invasion were completed, British forces under Gough crossed into Punjab in November 1848. This marked the beginning of the war, even though no formal declaration of war was made.

The Sikhs were finally defeated in the most decisive battle of Gujrat (battle of guns) and Dalhousie annexed Punjab in 1849. The Khalsa militia was disbanded. British forced Dileep Singh, the infant ruler, to sign the document of annexation. Dileep was sent out to England, and he lived the rest of his life in England as an exile. Thus, the last major autonomous Indian state became a part of the British Indian Empire.

Causes of Sikh Defeat

• • Despite its big size and military strength, the Sikh state was medieval in nature. It didn’t evolve its own modern institutions.
  • ◦ Ranajit Singh had consolidated and centralized the administration to such an extent that his absence created a void, leading to the gradual collapse of the entire structure.
  • ◦ Even though Ranjit Singh united the Sikhs under a national monarchy, he also actively aided the feudalization process. As he did not have enough resources to pay for a huge army due to the weak economic basis of his kingdom, he started distributing jagirs in lieu of salary. This created a class of feudal military aristocrats who were tied to land and not to the state.
• • So long as there existed a powerful monarch like Ranjit Singh, the Sikh sardars remained united against a common enemy, the British. However, under the weak successors of Ranjit Singh, there was mutual rivalry and the Sikh court fell prey to factionalism.
• • Khalsa Army
  • ◦ Ranjit Singh had turned the Khalsa army into a heroic fighting force. The army fought with the British with a remarkable patriotic spirit. But they lacked modern sophisticated firearms to combat the English who were armed with superior arms and ammunitions.
  • ◦ He couldn’t bring the army under civilian authority. While he was alive, his personal influence kept the army in check, but after his death, the army spiraled out of control, meddling in politics and rendering the civil government powerless.
  • ◦ The jagir system also weakened the army and contributed to its undisciplined character.
• • Unlike Shivaji, Ranjit Singh failed to instill a unifying sentiment that would endure after his death. While Shivaji’s successors may have been equally incompetent as Ranjit Singh’s, the post-death history of Maharashtra contrasts significantly with that of Punjab.
• • Ranjit Singh’s lack of foresight is evident in his interactions with the English. Despite knowing that the English were encircling his kingdom and aware of their expansionist goals, he chose to wait and avoid a confrontation. Instead, he left the responsibility of facing the English to his feeble and incompetent successors.
• • Ranjit Singh was powerless to avert future British danger. By signing the Treaty of Amritsar, he protected Punjab from British expansion temporarily but effectively passed the matter on to his successors.

Notwithstanding his shortsighted policy Ranjit Singh occupies a high place in Indian History. Ranjit Singh transformed a chaotic Punjab, torn by internal conflicts and threatened by Afghans and Marathas, into a unified kingdom. He secured territories from Kabul, prevented English interference, and pushed back invasions from the northwest, reaching the Khyber Pass. His legacy lies in creating a powerful tradition, celebrated by history.

Stages of British Paramountcy

Beginning around in the middle of 18th century, the English company emerged as the political master of India. In 1858, company was taken over by British crown and direct rule commenced. The ascendance of British power in India was a gradual multi-stage process. During these stages the attitude of British and the character of their policies towards native states changed fundamentally. The relations between the British and the Indian states followed following stages:

UPSC PYQs

• • “The British endeavored as far as possible to live within a Ring-Fence and beyond that they avoided intercourse with the chiefs.” Comment. [1987, 20m]
• • “If the paramount power cast its imperial cloak over the princes, it was also entitled to see that what was sheltered was in the main creditable.” Comment. [1989]
• • “No native state should be left to exist in India which is not upheld by the British power or the political conduct of which is not under the absolute control.” Comment. [1992, 20m]
• • “The British policy towards Indian States in 1818-1858 was one of isolation and noninterference tempered by annexation.” Comment. [1996, 20m]
• • “Dalhousie changed the map of India with speed and thoroughness no campaign could equal.” Comment. [2001, 20m]
• • Examine the essential principles of the Subsidiary Alliance system. How far did it contribute in making the British Company the supreme sovereign authority in India? [2005, 60m]

(1) The Company Struggles for Equality, 1740-65

• • Prior to 1740, the East India Company focused primarily on commerce. However, during the Carnatic wars English asserted the political presence by capturing Arcot in 1751.
• • In 1757 the English won the battle of Plassey and became the political force behind the nawabs of Bengal. Still, it hesitated to assert the power openly. Rather, it stood in relation to the Indian state in a position of subordination. The Company became a ruling power after the Emperor, Shah Alam II granted it the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1765 in the Treaty of Allahabad after the battle of Buxar.

(2) The Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1799)

This period saw the emergence of the policy of creating buffer states around the Company’s territories. The idea was purely that of defense of the frontiers of the Company.

Moreover, in this phase, the company conquered territories gradually, but it was not very powerful. It was considered necessary to avoid wars and battles. It was rather apprehensive that the powerful native states could harm its interest if the company indulged in open expansionism. Thus, the Company tried to remain away from unfriendly native states as much as possible.

• • To save Bengal from Marathas and Afghans, Awadh was treated as a buffer.
• • To save Madras and Norther Sircar, it was the Nizam’s domain acting as a buffer.

(3) Subsidiary Alliance (1798-1813)

With the arrival of Wellesley, the Company’s relations with the Indian states underwent a change. In light of the possible French invasion of India, he aimed at bringing the Indian states within the ambit of British political power and military protection using subsidiary alliance.

Starting with the Nizam of Hyderabad, many other states including Mysore and Oudh were forced to accept the Subsidiary Alliance System. It was the Trojan-horse tactics in Empire-building. The defeat of the Marathas in 1803-05 virtually established the supremacy of British power.

“No native state should be left to exist in India which is not upheld by the British power or the political conduct of which is not under its absolute control.” George Barlow (Acting GG, 1805-07)

(4) The Policy of Paramountcy and Annexationism, 1813-57

• • Factors and forces of change:
  • ◦ Industrial capitalism
  • ◦ Neo-Victorian imperialism
  • ◦ Utilitarian ideas – better and efficient government
  • ◦ With the arrival of Lord Hastings in 1813, the nature and character of company’s policies in India changed fundamentally, a new stage of imperialism started, the theory of Paramountcy began to develop.
  • ◦ By this time consolidation of the company’s authority in India was over.
  • ◦ The Charter Act of 1833 marked a significant shift in the character of the East India Company. The company phased out its commercial operations, assuming a more prominent political role.

Now, British started to establish the superior authority over the princely states tied in treaty relationship. All the activities of the company were guided by the vision of imperialism.

• • Company-Mughal Emperor relations:
  • ◦ Till 1813, Mughals were accepted as sovereign.
  • ◦ After 1813, there was a change. Lord Hasting refuse to meet Mughal emperor Akbar II without the terms of equality.
    • ■ Lord Amherst became the First Governor General to meet Mughal Emperor on the terms of Equality on in 1827.
    • ■ During the reign of Akbar II, the British no longer regarded themselves as a subject under the Mughal rule.
• • With respect to states:
  • ◦ The treaties with the Indian states were not on the basis of reciprocity and mutual amity. Rather, they imposed the obligation to act in subordinate cooperation and acknowledge British supremacy.
  • ◦ Thus, the Indian states surrendered all forms of external sovereignty to the East India Company. The states, however, retained full sovereignty in internal administration.
  • ◦ However, even internally, the policy asserted the Governor General’s right to intervene, and to supersede their authority if necessary. It is a claim to overlordship.
    • ■ The decades following the retirement of Lord Hastings saw a rapid increase in the influence of the Company in the internal administration of the states.
    • ■ Gradually, the influence, power and interference of the British Residents increased in the native courts. With the assertion of the Company’s Paramountcy, the Residents slowly but effectively transformed from diplomatic agents (representing a foreign power) into controlling officers of a superior government.
    • ■ The branch of the Company’s government which handled matters pertaining to princely states was known as the foreign department, created first in 1783.
    • ■ Residents and political agents often wielded enormous authority and constituted parallel centres of power. Lord Hastings noted: “Instead of acting in the character of ambassador, he (the Resident) assumes the functions of a dictator.”
    • ■ Even the large states like Hyderabad had to listen to the dictates of the Company.
    • ■ In the long run, paramountcy involved more direct intervention in the form of annexation.
• • After 1833, there was a substantial change in its approach toward Indian states.
  • ◦ The company now started insisting on its prior approval in all matters of state succession.
  • ◦ Eventually, it became common for the company to provide advice to the princes on the selection of ministers.
  • ◦ The policy of annexation of states ‘whenever and wherever possible’ was allowed by the Court of Directors in 1834. Annexations were made to acquire new territories and new sources of revenue on the plea of failure of natural heirs or misgovernment. Thus, Paramountcy was used as a legal fiction to justify outright annexation.

The Governors-General of this period were frankly annexationists.

• • William Bentinck annexed Mysore (1831), Cachar (1832), Coorg (1834), and Jaintia (1835).
• • Auckland annexed Karnul, Mandavi (1839), Kolaba and Jalaun (1840).

Lord Dalhousie, the greatest imperialist

Lord Dalhousie (1848-56) was greatest imperialist in the history of British India, and he used every method and opportunity to carry out the territorial expansion of British East India possessions. He embarked on a systematic policy of annexation of the territories. Dalhousie strongly advocated decreasing the areas under indirect rule and bringing them under direct British administration. This trend might have continued beyond his tenure had the revolt not intervened.

Three-fold Policy of Dalhousie:

• • Continued the British policy of conquest – Vast Territorial Expansion
  • ◦ Second Anglo-Sikh War (1849) – Annexation of Punjab
  • ◦ Second Burmese war (1852) – pushed the eastern frontier to the Salween river.
• • Pressure tactics
  • ◦ Snatched Berar from the Nizam (1853)
  • ◦ Sikkim fell into the clutches of Dalhousie’s imperialist policy (1850) and the southern part was annexed.
• • Annexation
  • ◦ Doctrine of Lapse
    • ■ It was earlier vaguely used by Auckland in the past, but Dalhousie gave it a concrete shape.
    • ■ Under this, if the ruler did not have a natural heir, his kingdom could be annexed by the British authorities, unless the adopted son was specifically approved by the British earlier.
    • ■ The Doctrine paid rich dividends to the Company. On this basis, Dalhouise annexed seven states: Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854)

Type of State	Doctrine of Lapse
Independent and Friendly States	Doctrine of Lapse was not applicable here. The states were free to choose successors without any British intervention
States earlier subordinated by Mughals or Marathas	In the matter of succession, these states had to seek British approval, which was easily granted. So, the Doctrine was not recalled here.
States created by the Company (through sanad)	If there was no legal heir to the throne, the ruler was not permitted to adopt for succession purpose. As per the British, it amounted to the delegated power.

• ◦ Doctrine of Mal-Administration or Mis-governance.
  • ■ Awadh had a great economic and strategic importance, but the doctrine of lapse was not applicable to it. So, Dalhousie invented another doctrine of mis-governance in context of Awadh – Company could annex any state based on mis-governance caused by an incompetent ruler. Thus, Nawab Wajid Ali of Awadh was removed from power on this pretext and Awadh was annexed in 1856 CE.