Handout 7: American Revolution

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable right, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
—The Declaration of American Independence, 4 July 1776

The American Revolution (1765-81) was an ideological and political revolution based on the principles of the American Enlightenment and led to the independence of the American colonies from the British. It was the first successful struggle against colonialism. It opened the doors of the modern age for mankind, led to worldwide impact and transformed both America and Europe.

John Adams, the second President of the United States, declared that the history of the American Revolution went back to 1620 when the first permanent settlement was established by the British at James Town. But after a minute analysis, we can say that the differences between Britain and American settlements started in 1763.

Background: Development of American Colonies

Nature of American society was very different as compared to the European society.

• • Ethnic and cultural diversity
  • ◦ America is a country of immigrants who belonged to different ethnic and cultural groups.
  • ◦ Unlike European people, Americans were not bound through a sense of common pedigree. Rather, through a common future dream.
• • Unlike Europe, there was no feudalism or Catholic Church like structure in American colonies. Dominant element in American society were new settlers. American upper class people had limited political and social privileges as compare to Europe. All of this contributed in shaping the ideals of Republicanism.
• • American continent was a continent of abundance (no dearth of resources) and it provided such a large opportunity for enterprise that fate of a person could change overnight.
  • ◦ This natural wealth of the continent encouraged the optimism and individualistic consciousness among American people.
  • ◦ From the very beginning, American people were very active and hard-working, and they had a strong faith in their capability. This is the reason why they showed courage to resist oppression instead of surrendering.

Lack of Affection with Britain

The bond of attachment between American people and Britain was very weak even though about 90% of the people living in American colonies were of British origin.

• • The people living in these American colonies had moved to America under compulsion.
  • ◦ Deported to America by the government as a punishment.
  • ◦ Many had escaped to America from Europe to save their life from prosecution of state or church.
  • ◦ Many migrated to America because of economic compulsion.
• • These migrants to America had struggled hard over generations to make their living and to develop them economically. During this long phase of struggle, these Americans received no help from British government, and they were self-made people and because of this they had any love or affection for their motherland.

Because of this lack of affection towards Britain the Americans were under no moral obligation to remain under British rule forever. When the character rule changed against the interest of Americans after 1763 the people raised the banner of revolution.

Maturation of the American colonies

By the middle of 18^th c., the Americans had matured politico-admin, socio-culturally as well as economically.

• • Politico-Admin
  • ◦ By the middle of 18^th c., all the 13 colonies had their own legislature.
  • ◦ Most of the politico-Admin responsibilities were handled by Americans themselves. The British control was limited to top layers of administration.
  • ◦ Each colony, and the newspapers published therein, dealt with the colonial power in London and largely ignored other colonies. In one sense, these colonies were enjoying freedom.
• • Socio religious institutions had also evolved in America.
  • ◦ American society was stable, without the social tensions that dominated the life of Europeans.
  • ◦ Educational development: Harvard and Yale were established by 17^th century.
  • ◦ The First Great Awakening was a series of Christian revivals that swept the 13 American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s.
  • ◦ Thus, a typical America culture had evolved which played an important role in creating the circumstances responsible for the outbreak of American Revolution.
• • Economic
  • ◦ The level of economic progress in these American colonies was not less than Britain in any way.
  • ◦ These Americans were not dependent on outsider for their economic prosperity, and they were living a better life than most people living in Britain.

Albany Congress (1754)

• • The Congress advocated a union of the British colonies in North America for their security and defense against the French.
• • Benjamin Franklin made an appeal to the British government to treat Americans differently, but the British government did not pay attention to this appeal. He made Britain aware of the new character of America. He declared that America was in nation building process.

Issues involved in American Revolution

(A) It was a conflict between British mercantilism and American capitalism.

Americans were firm believers in the philosophy of capitalism because:

• • They were self-made economically and struggled hard over generations to accumulate wealth. The process of their economic advancement was extremely trying. Thus, Americans loved nothing more than their property.
• • They had always fought tough battles against heavy odds, in which the best survives. Thus, the achievement orientation was very strong among Americans.
• • The spirit of individualism was also dominant among Americans because of their independent mindedness.
• • The commercial revolution was encouraged in America in the 18th century and especially after the 1740s.
  • ◦ For example, in 1747 America used to import goods having value of one million pounds from Britain. But in the 1770s, it increased to four million pounds.
  • ◦ The monetary economy got an impetus due to the development of internal and external trade.
  • ◦ As a result, the existing social structure, which was based on patron-client relations, began to break down and new social relations were developing based on economic relations.

Thus, when they were subjected to mercantilist regulations by British government the reaction was bound to be furious.

On the other hand, the British economic policy was mercantilist in nature. The British Parliament enacted such mechanisms as protectionist trade barriers, governmental regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries for the purpose of augmenting British finances at the expense of colonial territories.

To bring American economy under strict control, England sought to prevent its colonies in North America from trading with other European countries and from developing a robust manufacturing industry.

• • Various Navigation Acts were introduced in the 17^th century.
  • ◦ To this end, beginning in 1651, 1660, and 1666, the British Parliament adopted a series of legislation known as the Navigation Acts.
  • ◦ It tried to promote the British shipping industry at the cost of American shipping.
• • British tried to bring monetary policy and export-import policy of American colonies under British control.
  • ◦ For example, on the purchase of two products, tobacco & maize, from American colonies, there was a complete British monopoly.
• • British even discouraged industralisation in American colonies. So that it wouldn’t compete with the emerging British industry.
• • The taxes imposed by British during 1764-67 was reflection of British mercantilism because through these taxes American wealth was to be taken away to Britain.

Since the Americans were well matured and they were not dependent on the Britishers in any way, they refused to abide by these mercantilist regulations. Therefore, the route of the American slogan ‘No Taxation without Representation’ basically lay in this capitalist ambition of American colonies. These developments triggered the revolution in 1776.

(B) American Revolution was ideologically inspired by the Enlightenment thought, and especially the British thinkers like John Locke, Harrington & Milton.

Enlightenment ideals had a huge impact on America. The Enlightenment ideals were the main influences for American Colonies to become their own nation.

American Revolution was related to enlightenment in following ways:

• • American scholars were widely influenced by enlightenment.
  • ◦ European enlightened scholars had high praise for the open society like American society.
  • ◦ Even before independence, some American scholars like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin had visited Europe. They were considered paragons of Enlightenment thought.
  • ◦ Common Sense by Thomas Paine
  • ◦ In one sense, American Revolution was an extension of the European question.
    • ■ Americans were revolting against mercantilist policies being imposed on them in the form of Navigation Laws. These ideas connected American with European thinking.
• • The political ideas of Milton, Locke, Sidney, and James Harrington strongly influenced the American Revolution. Two Enlightenment philosophers that influenced the creation of the government were John Locke and Montesquieu.
  • ◦ John Locke’s idea of natural rights (life, liberty, property)
  • ◦ Montesquieu’s idea of the separation of powers.
  • ◦ James Herrington (The Common-wealth of Oceana, 1656)
    • ■ In Oceana (imagined ideal state), Harrington believed that democracy is most stable where a strong middle class exists, and that revolution is a consequence of the separation of economic and political power.
  • ◦ John Milton (poet of Paradise) supported a republican form of government.
  • ◦ Algernon Sydney (Discourses Concerning Government has been called the textbook of the American revolution.)
    • ■ Sidney directly opposed the theory of divine right of kings by suggesting ideas such as limited government, voluntary consent of the people and the right of citizens to alter or abolish a corrupt government.

Religious motivation to oppose tyranny. Historian John Patrick Diggins writes that American historians have concentrated on political ideas while underplaying “the religious convictions that often undergird them, especially the Calvinist convictions that Locke himself held: resistance to tyranny….” According to Harry S. Stout, a professor of religion at Yale University, “From the repeal of the Stamp Act on, New England’s Congregationalist ministers played a leading role in fomenting sentiments of resistance, and, after 1774, open rebellion.”

(C) There was a political-constitutional conflict as well.

• ◦ British executive interfered to a great extent in the matter of the American executive.
• ◦ Taxation issue
  • ◦ British were asserting right of parliament to impose tax.
    • ■ According to the British, the parliament was an all-powerful institution, and all other institutions were just subject to it.
  • ◦ According to Americans men are enjoying certain natural rights that are above all laws including parliamentary laws.

Unfolding of the events

(1) Till 1763 the British rule in American colonies was largely symbolic and nominal.

• • The Americans were living a life of complete freedom without any interference from British side.
  • ◦ The burden of taxes on Americans was much less than the burden being born by the citizens of Britain.
  • ◦ The British government was controlling only top layer of administration while most of the politico-admin responsibilities were being handled by Americans themselves.
• • The American colonies were not a source of Economic gains for Britain, but their significance was strategic and ceremonial.
  • ◦ This American Empire was a matter of great prestige for British crown because it was not letting sun set on British Empire.
  • ◦ The presence of British force in these colonies were keeping the French expansion in American in check.

As a result of 7 years’ war fought during 1756-63, Canada moved under British control. (Treaty of Paris)

• ◦ It was a very expensive war.
• ◦ After that, the British government was no longer worried about the possibility of any French invasion from north.
• ◦ The feeling of insecurity among the Americans from the side of French was also no more.

(2) Thus, there was a change in British policy towards America:

• • The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III
  • ◦ It forbade all settlements west of a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains, which was delineated as an Indian Reserve.
• • British sought to recoup expenses borne defending the colonies.
  • ◦ Instituted the first ever direct internal taxes in North America, the most famous being Stamp Act (a special tax stamp on all legal documents and publications) by George Granville.
  • ◦ Measures adopted by Granville to shore up finances:
    • ■ To strictly enforce navigation laws.
    • ■ New taxes like the Stamp Act (1765), Currency Act, Quartering Act, and Sugar Act etc. were imposed by the British parliament.
    • ■ To activate anti-smuggling laws forcefully.

American Response:

• • Such taxes on commerce alienated powerful interests, including well-off traders in the North and prosperous planters in the South. British-American colonies, esp. middle-class merchants, smugglers, political leaders were enraged.
• • The protests led to the emergence of a new leadership.
• • During the Stamp Act crisis, news began to focus on events throughout the thirteen colonies.
• • They complained that the tax was enacted in England without the colonists’ input. Patrick Henry called George III a despotic ruler and made a resolution in the Virginia Assembly that only American representatives could tax Americans.
• • American leaders from 9 colonies gathered at New York and organized Stamp Act Congress (1765). It was called by the efforts of Patrick Henry and James Otis.
  • ◦ It decided to boycott British goods.
  • ◦ The delegates made their famous declaration, ‘No taxation without representation’.
  • ◦ In this Congress, the right of British parliament to impose internal tax (Excise, sales etc) was questioned. The external tax (custom duty etc.) was not questioned.
• • This was the first major coordinated action by the colonies together. So, the conflict started here.
• • Various Committees of Correspondence were soon formed by Americans to oppose the British policies and enforce the boycott. They encouraged opposition to Acts, they gradually grew to coordinate the boycott efforts, and they helped people become aware of their liberties. (Almost government-like behaviour.)
• • Sons of Liberty (1765) was formed in Boston to oppose unfair taxation and organize coordinated action.

(3) American efforts succeeded and eventually, the British backed down.

• • Granville was soon dismissed by George III and the new Rockingham government came. He abolished these new taxes – the Stamp Act, Sugar Act etc.
• • However, Rockingham also passed the Declaratory Act, which asserted that the British Parliament had the right to legislate for the American colonies in all cases whatsoever.

(4) George III again replaced Rockingham with Pitt the Elder (66-68). In his government, the finance minister was Townshend.

• • He thought that American colonies had objections on internal taxes only and didn’t object to British Parliament’ right to impose external tax - duties.
• • He established a series of Acts (called Townshend Acts) which placed an indirect tax on a few items – glass, lead, paints, paper, coinage, and tea, all of which were essential commodities and had to be imported from Britain.
• • It also created a new board of customs to stop smuggling.
• • American Response
  • ◦ The Townshend Acts met stiff resistance in the colonies. Many colonists again responded with protests and boycotts.
  • ◦ Women got in on the act this time, with the Daughters of Liberty, encouraging homespun clothes to replace British ones.
  • ◦ Public opposition was widely debated in colonial newspapers. Now Americans started to oppose external taxes authority of British Parliament also.
  • ◦ Opponents of the Acts gradually became violent, leading to the Boston Massacre of 1770.

(5) Soon, Pitt’s government was replaced by FitzRoy. (68-70). Uneventful.

(6) Then came Lord North government (70-82).

• • Due to intense opposition, the government of the North removed the tax on all other items except tea. The Parliament passed a Tea Act (1773) designed to aid the financially troubled East India Company by granting it a monopoly.
• • Despite tax, it made the tea cheaper.
• • American Response:
  • ◦ Still, the protest against taxation remained intact. Some colonists were upset that cheap tea would cut into the profits of smugglers and established tea merchants, but most were just angry on principle.
  • ◦ Americans now thought this not a matter of tea, this is a matter of taxation over American products. It created anti-British environment.
  • ◦ In New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, tea agents resigned or canceled orders, and merchants refused consignments.
  • ◦ In Boston port of Massachusetts, however, the royal governor Thomas Hutchinson determined to uphold the law — a British ship full of tea boxes was stationed, when on 16 December 1773, a mob led by Samuel Adams took out 341 boxes from the ship and threw them into the sea. Boston Tea Party (1773).

• • It was a major defiance and British now lost patience. There was complete fall-out.
  • ◦ Lord North passed a number of punitive laws – to punish the Bostonians. These measures were known as the Coercive Acts in Great Britain, while dubbed the Intolerable Acts in the colonies.
    • ■ The trial was started in England to punish the culprits associated.
    • ■ The Massachusetts Government Act curtailed self-government there.
    • ■ The Quartering Act forced colonists to house British soldiers in their homes when ordered to.
    • ■ The Quebec Act extended the southern boundary of Quebec and granted religious toleration to Catholics.
• • The British government’s efforts to single out Massachusetts for punishment served only to unite the colonies and impel the drift toward war. The acts further inflamed Massachusetts and the other colonies, eventually resulting in open war in 1775.

Political opposition in the American colonies turned belligerent when Britain threatened to use force to maintain control. The First Continental Congress (1774) convened in Philadelphia, composed of delegates from the colonies (except Georgia).

• • In this conference it was decided to boycott British goods.
• • This Congress sent a petition to the House of Lords. It demanded the repeal of all laws after 1765. It suggested that Americans were loyal British subjects who wanted reconciliation with the mother country.

Meanwhile, the hostilities broke out between Americans and British troops at Lexington (17 April 1775) and Concord, Massachusetts.

Meanwhile, in 1776, Thomas Paine gave a clear and comprehensive expression to the ideas of independence in his short text called ‘Common Sense’. It had a message to the Americans to stay away from the corrupt rule of George III and throw away the yoke of British colonial rule. Paine’s pamphlets sold 150 thousand copies, and it was extremely widely read.

The next year the Second Continental Congress (1775-89) assembled.

• • The Congress organized the military force and appointed George Washington commander in chief.
• • It acted as the provisional government of the 13 colony-states, issuing and borrowing money, establishing a postal service, and creating a navy.
• • On 4^th July, it adopted the Declaration of Independence (1776).
• • It prepared the Articles of Confederation (1777), which, after being sanctioned by all the states, became the first U.S. constitution in 1781.

Success in the War of Independence

The war came to an end when in 1781, Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown and in 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed. Now, USA emerged as independence sovereign nation. How did American colonies get success against the global power British at that time?

• • Attitudinal difference
  • ◦ Earlier, the British authorities didn’t take the American revolutionaries seriously and mainly relied on mercenary soldiers to suppress them. The British authorities failed to rally the loyalist Americans.
  • ◦ Americans were driven by a strong spirit of liberty which held them strong during adverse situations.
• • Geography:
  • ◦ Isolation of the American continent and British ignorance regarding American geography.
  • ◦ Huge land, British had to send army from afar and then it was spread over a last mass of land.
• • George Washington: able, pragmatic commander
• • Cooperation of France, Spain, and Holland

Significances of American Revolution

It transformed not only America but Europe as well as other parts of the world. Its direct and indirect influences were felt worldwide in the time to come.

It accentuated changes in political, economic & social structure. Some fundamental changes were noticed in the prevailing economic and social structure in the middle of the American war of independence.

Impact on America:

• • Political Change
  • ◦ It resulted into the liberation of American colonies and led to formation of a powerful nation. Not simply that, a federal America could emerge as a world power and was likely to play a very significant role in world politics after nearly 150 years.
  • ◦ After the revolution, American colonies emerged to be the first modern democratic republican government. When Europe was at the stage of enlightened monarchy, British American colonies reached up to the status of a republic. In this way, ideologically American colonies went ahead of contemporary Europe.
  • ◦ Written constitution
    • ■ American Revolution gave the 1st modern written constant to world. The American constant was enacted and adopted by Philadelphia Congress in 1787.
  • ◦ After liberation, American colonies formed a federal government. In this way, Americans developed a new model of government that was much suited to multi-racial, multi-lingual & multi-cultural countries.
  • ◦ Americans sanctified fundamental rights for their people in the new constitution. The concept of natural rights of man were also popularized.
  • ◦ The beginning of true religious freedom was truly revolutionary.
    • ■ The Church of England ceased to be the Church of America.
    • ■ Jefferson called for a “wall of separation” between Church and State.
  • ◦ America emerged as the most liberal and progressive Nation because of its success. These liberal & Progressive ideas gave a very high prestige to America in the community of Nations. This process of American ascendancy reached to culmination in 1991 when USA was left as only super power.
• • Economic Change
  • ◦ Locke had equated liberty with property.
  • ◦ Ideas of liberty led to a decline in apprenticeship and indentured servitude.
  • ◦ Immediately after the war, the split occurred between the North, with its reliance on paid labor, and the South, with its reliance on slavery.
• • Social Change: Even though the American revolutionaries didn’t overturn privilege or tear apart the social order as the French Revolution tried to do, it did make significant changes.
  • ◦ America made sure that there would never be a formal nobility.
  • ◦ It recognized the equal rights of daughters and widows, when it came to inheriting and possessing property. Women got the right to carry on business, contract and keep separate property in her husband’s absence. Along with this, liberal laws related to marriages and divorces were passed.
  • ◦ Real seismic change was that after the Revolution, Americans came to view themselves as equal to each other.
    • ■ It paved the way for people participation in the political sphere and encouraged a free market-based economy.
    • ■ After 1791, the United States of America became the first country to grant right to faith and conscience to its citizen. Fundamental freedoms of the people were accepted through the fundamental rights.

Therefore, it is difficult to believe that the American freedom movement was devoid of social purpose.

Limitations of American Revolution

The revolution does not have the voice of social radicalism like in the French Revolution. It didn’t displace the elite, land-owning, white leadership of America. • Inequality ◦ Voting Rights: Wealthy class had its influence on the American Constitution. So, the principle of adult franchise was not accepted. Property qualification for voting was institutionalized. Women were not entitled the right to vote. ◦ Property: Property rights were protected. Therefore, even after this independence, economic inequality remained. E.g. The Articles of Confederation gave the government no power to tax. ■ Most of the writers and signers of the Declaration of Independence were men of property, and they wanted to keep it that way. • Slavery ◦ The proclamation of Independence did not apply to slaves. The Revolution was deeply hypocritical, when it came to “All men were created equal” as the founding father were slaveowners. ◦ 30% Americans were slaves of African descent who were held as property. • Native Americans ◦ Native Americans were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. ◦ American troops were particularly brutal to American Indians who fought for the British, burning their villages and enslaving prisoners, contrary to the accepted rules of war. ◦ Indians didn’t get any of the natural rights. • Women ◦ Women didn’t get much out of the Revolution. ■ They were basically still considered wards of their husbands. Or, if they were unmarried, saleable assets of their fathers. ■ The idea of Republican Motherhood became important. • It held that for the republic to survive, it was necessary to have a well-educated citizenry. And since women were the primary educators, they themselves needed to be educated. ◦ Could not vote.

Worldwide Impact

• • The establishment of a powerful state with vast natural wealth in the Western Hemisphere was a revolutionary change.
• • Democratic ideas like equality, liberty, Fraternity were popularized by American Revolution all over the world as a result of this. These ideas of enlightenment were absorbed by common masses everywhere.
  • ◦ It inspired similar guarantees in other parts of the world ‘The Declaration of Rights’ adopted by France in Aug 1791 was continuation and reflection of same.
• • It triggered a series of trans-Atlantic revolutions.
  • ◦ It played an important role in the outbreak of revolution in France because
    • ■ It gave ideological support to the French Revolution.
    • ■ The financial burden of French participation in American war of Independence has exhausted French treasury.
    • ■ The French soldiers who fought in America for liberty and equality of Americans found it difficult to tolerate the denial of these rights to them in their own country. These America returned French soldiers such as Lafayette were in the fore front of French revolution.
  • ◦ The flame of revolution reached Ireland in 1798. The European revolution of 19^th century were the continuation of tradition of revolution triggered by AR of 1776.
  • ◦ That is why American Revolution of 1776 is known as Mother of all revolutions.
• • It was the first example of modern nationalism.
  • ◦ American liberation became a symbol of ‘Anti-colonial movement’ that influenced the liberation/nationalist movements throughout the world.
  • ◦ It also inaugurated the process of decolonization in the world.
  • ◦ The immediate impact was visible in Latin America. (Leaders like San Jose Martin and Bolivar)
  • ◦ This process continued to gain momentum with the passage of time & over next two centuries, all the colonies in world gained independence.

Impact on Britain

• • British monarchy received a major setback and the process of democratization of the British parliament started.
• • Anglo-French conflict
  • ◦ It intensified the hostilities between Britain and French because the Americans could gain independence only because of French support.
  • ◦ This renewed hostility affected the history of Europe for many decades French and Britain fought a number of Battles during 1791-1815.
• • British government modified its colonial policy to other white-settled colonies i.e. Canada, South Africa and later even in Australia & New Zealand.
• • After losing American colonies, Britain leaned towards India and India emerged to be the most precious jewel in the British Crown.
  • ◦ The American Revolution resulted in loss of one colonial empire for Britain but at the same time it paved the way for another British colonial empire.

UPSC CSE PYQs – American Revolution

• • Causes
  • ◦ The American Revolution “was a natural and even expected event in the history of colonial people who had come of age.” Comment. [1995, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ “No taxation without representation.” Comment. [2006, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ “The American Revolution was essentially an economic conflict between American capitalism and British mercantilism.” Critically examine. [2012, 10 Marks]
  • ◦ “American Revolution seems to have come with remarkable suddenness. A roster of talented leaders emerged during 1763 to 1775 to make it happen.” Elucidate. [2014, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ Do you understand that the lack of statesmanship in London during the 1760s and 1770s was an important contributory factor in precipitating the American Revolution? Analyse. [2022, 20m]
• • Nature
  • ◦ “At the news of the Declaration of Independence crowds gathered to cheer, fire guns and cannon and ring church bells in Philadelphia. Boston and other places, but there were many people in America who did not rejoice.” Comment. [1988, 20 Marks]
• • Consequence
  • ◦ “The American War of Independence transformed Europeans as well as America.” Comment. [1990, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ The American War of Independence “deprived Great Britain of one empire, but it strengthened the foundations of another”. Comment. [1998, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ “The American War of Independence transformed Europe as well as America.” Critically examine. [2018, 10 Marks]

Handout 7: American Revolution

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable right, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
—The Declaration of American Independence, 4 July 1776

The American Revolution (1765-81) was an ideological and political revolution based on the principles of the American Enlightenment and led to the independence of the American colonies from the British. It was the first successful struggle against colonialism. It opened the doors of the modern age for mankind, led to worldwide impact and transformed both America and Europe.

John Adams, the second President of the United States, declared that the history of the American Revolution went back to 1620 when the first permanent settlement was established by the British at James Town. But after a minute analysis, we can say that the differences between Britain and American settlements started in 1763.

Background: Development of American Colonies

Nature of American society was very different as compared to the European society.

• • Ethnic and cultural diversity
  • ◦ America is a country of immigrants who belonged to different ethnic and cultural groups.
  • ◦ Unlike European people, Americans were not bound through a sense of common pedigree. Rather, through a common future dream.
• • Unlike Europe, there was no feudalism or Catholic Church like structure in American colonies. Dominant element in American society were new settlers. American upper class people had limited political and social privileges as compare to Europe. All of this contributed in shaping the ideals of Republicanism.
• • American continent was a continent of abundance (no dearth of resources) and it provided such a large opportunity for enterprise that fate of a person could change overnight.
  • ◦ This natural wealth of the continent encouraged the optimism and individualistic consciousness among American people.
  • ◦ From the very beginning, American people were very active and hard-working, and they had a strong faith in their capability. This is the reason why they showed courage to resist oppression instead of surrendering.

Lack of Affection with Britain

The bond of attachment between American people and Britain was very weak even though about 90% of the people living in American colonies were of British origin.

• • The people living in these American colonies had moved to America under compulsion.
  • ◦ Deported to America by the government as a punishment.
  • ◦ Many had escaped to America from Europe to save their life from prosecution of state or church.
  • ◦ Many migrated to America because of economic compulsion.
• • These migrants had struggled hard over generations. During this long phase of struggle, these Americans received no help from British government, and they were self-made people.

Because of this lack of affection towards Britain the Americans were under no moral obligation to remain under British rule forever. When the character rule changed against the interest of Americans after 1763 the people raised the banner of revolution.

Maturation of the American Colonies

By the middle of 18^th c., the Americans had matured politico-admin, socio-culturally as well as economically.

• • Politico-Admin: All the 13 colonies had their own legislature. Most politico-admin responsibilities were handled by Americans themselves. British control was limited to top layers of administration.
• • Socio-religious: American society was stable. Harvard and Yale established by 17^th century. The First Great Awakening swept the 13 colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. A typical American culture had evolved.
• • Economic: Level of economic progress was not less than Britain. These Americans were not dependent on outsiders for their economic prosperity.

Albany Congress (1754)

• • Advocated a union of the British colonies for security and defense against the French.
• • Benjamin Franklin appealed to the British government to treat Americans differently and declared that America was in a nation-building process.

Issues Involved in American Revolution

(A) Conflict between British mercantilism and American capitalism.

Americans were firm believers in capitalism because: they were self-made and loved their property; had strong achievement orientation; dominant spirit of individualism; and the commercial revolution had flourished (imports from Britain grew from £1m in 1747 to £4m in the 1770s).

The British economic policy was mercantilist — protectionist trade barriers, governmental regulations, subsidies to domestic industries, all at the expense of colonial territories. England sought to prevent colonies from trading with other European countries and from developing manufacturing industry.

• • Navigation Acts (1651, 1660, 1666) — promoted British shipping at cost of American shipping.
• • British monopoly on tobacco & maize; discouraged industrialisation in colonies.
• • Taxes imposed during 1764-67 were a direct reflection of British mercantilism.

Americans refused to abide by these mercantilist regulations. The slogan ‘No Taxation without Representation’ basically lay in this capitalist ambition. These developments triggered the revolution in 1776.

(B) Ideological inspiration from Enlightenment thought, especially British thinkers like John Locke, Harrington & Milton.

• • Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin were paragons of Enlightenment thought. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense popularized independence.
• • John Locke: natural rights (life, liberty, property).
• • Montesquieu: separation of powers.
• • James Harrington (The Common-wealth of Oceana, 1656): democracy most stable where a strong middle class exists; revolution is a consequence of the separation of economic and political power.
• • John Milton: supported a republican form of government.
• • Algernon Sydney (Discourses Concerning Government — called the textbook of the American revolution): opposed divine right of kings; advocated limited government, voluntary consent of the people and the right to abolish a corrupt government.

Religious motivation to oppose tyranny. Historian John Patrick Diggins writes that American historians have concentrated on political ideas while underplaying “the religious convictions that often undergird them, especially the Calvinist convictions that Locke himself held: resistance to tyranny….” According to Harry S. Stout (Yale University), “From the repeal of the Stamp Act on, New England’s Congregationalist ministers played a leading role in fomenting sentiments of resistance, and, after 1774, open rebellion.”

(C) Political-constitutional conflict. British asserting parliamentary supremacy to impose tax; Americans asserting natural rights above all laws including parliamentary laws.

Unfolding of the Events

(1) Till 1763 the British rule in American colonies was largely symbolic and nominal. Americans lived in complete freedom, taxes were minimal, and British control was limited to top layers of administration. American colonies were not a source of economic gains for Britain — their significance was strategic and ceremonial.

As a result of the 7 Years’ War (1756-63), Canada moved under British control (Treaty of Paris). It was an expensive war. After this, neither Britain feared French invasion from the north nor did Americans feel insecure from France.

(2) Change in British policy:

• • Royal Proclamation of 1763 — forbade all settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains (Indian Reserve).
• • British sought to recoup war expenses: Stamp Act (1765), Currency Act, Quartering Act, Sugar Act imposed by George Granville. Navigation laws strictly enforced. Anti-smuggling laws activated.

American Response: Powerful interests alienated. Patrick Henry made a resolution in Virginia Assembly that only American representatives could tax Americans. Stamp Act Congress (1765) organized at New York by Patrick Henry and James Otis:

• • Decided to boycott British goods.
• • Famous declaration: ‘No taxation without representation’.
• • Questioned right of British parliament to impose internal tax; external tax not questioned.

This was the first major coordinated action by the colonies together. Committees of Correspondence formed. Sons of Liberty (1765) formed in Boston.

(3) British backed down — Rockingham government abolished Stamp Act, Sugar Act etc. But passed the Declaratory Act asserting Parliament’s right to legislate for the colonies in all cases.

(4) Pitt the Elder (66-68) — Finance minister Townshend imposed Townshend Acts: indirect tax on glass, lead, paints, paper, coinage, and tea. American response: protests, boycotts, Daughters of Liberty, eventually the Boston Massacre of 1770.

(5) FitzRoy government (68-70). Uneventful.

(6) Lord North (70-82) — removed tax on all items except tea. Tea Act (1773) gave East India Company a monopoly, making tea cheaper despite tax. Americans saw it as a matter of taxation over American products. On 16 December 1773, a mob led by Samuel Adams threw 341 boxes of tea into Boston harbour. Boston Tea Party (1773).

British lost patience — complete fall-out. Lord North passed Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts in colonies): Massachusetts Government Act curtailed self-government; Quartering Act forced colonists to house British soldiers; Quebec Act extended Quebec’s southern boundary. These acts united the colonies and resulted in open war in 1775.

First Continental Congress (1774), Philadelphia — boycotted British goods; sent petition to House of Lords demanding repeal of all laws after 1765.

Hostilities broke out at Lexington (17 April 1775) and Concord, Massachusetts.

Thomas Paine’s ‘Common Sense’ (1776) — urged Americans to throw away the yoke of British colonial rule. Sold 150,000 copies.

Second Continental Congress (1775-89): organized military force; appointed George Washington commander in chief; acted as provisional government; adopted the Declaration of Independence (4th July 1776); prepared Articles of Confederation (1777) — became first U.S. constitution in 1781.

Success in the War of Independence

In 1781, Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. In 1783, Treaty of Paris signed. USA emerged as an independent sovereign nation.

• • Attitudinal difference: British relied on mercenary soldiers; failed to rally loyalist Americans. Americans driven by strong spirit of liberty.
• • Geography: Isolation of the continent; British ignorance of American geography; huge land spread.
• • George Washington: able, pragmatic commander.
• • Cooperation of France, Spain, and Holland.

Significances of American Revolution

Impact on America:

• • Political Change: Liberation of American colonies and formation of a powerful nation. First modern democratic republican government. First modern written constitution (1787). Federal government model suited to multi-racial, multi-lingual & multi-cultural countries. Fundamental rights sanctified. True religious freedom — Jefferson’s “wall of separation” between Church and State.
• • Economic Change: Decline in apprenticeship and indentured servitude. Split between North (paid labor) and South (slavery).
• • Social Change: No formal nobility. Equal rights of daughters and widows in inheriting property. Americans came to view themselves as equal to each other. After 1791, first country to grant right to faith and conscience to citizens.

Therefore, it is difficult to believe that the American freedom movement was devoid of social purpose.

Limitations of American Revolution

The revolution does not have the voice of social radicalism like in the French Revolution. It didn’t displace the elite, land-owning, white leadership of America.

• • Inequality: Property qualification for voting institutionalized. Women could not vote. Economic inequality remained — Articles of Confederation gave government no power to tax.
• • Slavery: Independence did not apply to slaves. 30% Americans were slaves of African descent. The Revolution was deeply hypocritical when it came to “All men were created equal” — founding fathers were slaveowners.
• • Native Americans: American troops were particularly brutal to Indians who fought for the British — burning villages, enslaving prisoners. Indians didn’t get any natural rights.
• • Women: Still considered wards of their husbands. Could not vote. The idea of Republican Motherhood emerged — since women were primary educators, they needed to be educated for the republic to survive.

Worldwide Impact

• • Democratic ideas of equality, liberty, fraternity popularized all over the world. ‘The Declaration of Rights’ adopted by France in Aug 1791 was a direct continuation.
• • Triggered a series of trans-Atlantic revolutions:
  • ◦ Played an important role in the outbreak of revolution in France — gave ideological support; exhausted French treasury; French soldiers like Lafayette who fought in America led the French revolution.
  • ◦ The flame of revolution reached Ireland in 1798. The European revolutions of 19^th century were the continuation of this tradition.
  • ◦ American Revolution of 1776 is known as Mother of all revolutions.
• • First example of modern nationalism. American liberation became a symbol of ‘Anti-colonial movement’ and inaugurated the process of decolonization. Immediate impact visible in Latin America (San Jose Martin, Bolivar).

Impact on Britain

• • British monarchy received a major setback; process of democratization of British parliament started.
• • Intensified Anglo-French conflict — France and Britain fought battles during 1791-1815.
• • British modified colonial policy to white-settled colonies — Canada, South Africa, Australia & New Zealand.
• • Britain leaned towards India — India became the most precious jewel in the British Crown. The American Revolution resulted in loss of one colonial empire for Britain but paved the way for another.

UPSC CSE PYQs – American Revolution

• • Causes
  • ◦ The American Revolution “was a natural and even expected event in the history of colonial people who had come of age.” Comment. [1995, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ “No taxation without representation.” Comment. [2006, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ “The American Revolution was essentially an economic conflict between American capitalism and British mercantilism.” Critically examine. [2012, 10 Marks]
  • ◦ “American Revolution seems to have come with remarkable suddenness. A roster of talented leaders emerged during 1763 to 1775 to make it happen.” Elucidate. [2014, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ Do you understand that the lack of statesmanship in London during the 1760s and 1770s was an important contributory factor in precipitating the American Revolution? Analyse. [2022, 20m]
• • Nature
  • ◦ “At the news of the Declaration of Independence crowds gathered to cheer, fire guns and cannon and ring church bells in Philadelphia. Boston and other places, but there were many people in America who did not rejoice.” Comment. [1988, 20 Marks]
• • Consequence
  • ◦ “The American War of Independence transformed Europeans as well as America.” Comment. [1990, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ The American War of Independence “deprived Great Britain of one empire, but it strengthened the foundations of another”. Comment. [1998, 20 Marks]
  • ◦ “The American War of Independence transformed Europe as well as America.” Critically examine. [2018, 10 Marks]

Handout 8: Making of the American Constitution

“We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America.”

The Preamble to the US constitution

The US Constitution is the earliest example of the modern, written and republican constitution. It successfully harmonized the interests spread of 13 settlements and transformed a colonial society into a modern nation. Above all, it has remained intact its importance by successfully facing many challenges over the last two centuries.

Looking at its making, it could became possible only after an extensive debates. In a sense, in front of the Americans, more than the war of independence, the task of nation-building was a greater challenge. It was like bringing together 13 nations.

Articles of Confederation (1781-89)

After a long debate from 1777-81, the Articles of Confederation were drafted and ratified by the Second Continental. It is regarded as the First US Constitution and remained in force for a decade from 1781-89.

• • Confederation of sovereign states
• • Government:
  • ◦ Legislature: One-house body of delegates, with each state having a single vote.
  • ◦ There was no executive branch or president and no judiciary to settle disputes.
• • Limited power:
  • ◦ On paper, the Congress had power to regulate foreign affairs + Indian affairs, declare war, and the postal service and monetary policy. In reality, however, the Articles gave the Congress no power to enforce its requests to the states for money or troops. It could coin money but couldn’t impose taxes.
  • ◦ The government was deliberately weak, which followed logically from Americans’ fear of tyrannical governments taxing them and quartering soldiers in their houses. Very soon, governmental effectiveness broke down.
• • Performance of the Articles:
  • ◦ Guidance for the conduction of business during revolutionary years
  • ◦ Certain state claims to western lands were settled.
    • ■ The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 set up a process to create 5 new states between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Importantly, the ordinance outlawed slavery in all five of the new states.
  • ◦ It provided the new nation with instructive experience in self-government under a written document.
• • Issues due to weakness:
  • ◦ It often resulted in the deadlock along sectional lines between North/South, Big/Small.
  • ◦ Treaty of Paris (1783) stipulated that debts owed by Americans to British subjects were to be honored, These provisions were unpopular, and many states blocked their enforcement. This led to British refusal to vacate military forts in U.S. territory.
  • ◦ It couldn’t collect taxes.
    • ■ States were not required to provide any help. Although Congress asked for millions in the 1780s, it received less than 1.5 million from the states between 1781 and 1784.
    • ■ Both the national government and the individual states had racked up massive debt to pay for the war, and their main source of revenue became tariffs, but because Congress couldn’t impose them, states had to do it individually.
    • ■ After the war, British traders flooded U.S. markets with British goods, to the detriment of American importers and manufacturers. But the Confederation lacked the authority to regulate this trade.
    • ■ People who held government bonds wanted central government to have tax revenue, so that they would be paid back.
  • ◦ Shay’s Rebellion (1786-87): Massachusetts farmers rose up and closed the courts to prevent them from foreclosing upon their debt-encumbered farms.
  • ◦ In revealing their own weaknesses, the Articles paved the way for the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and the present form of U.S. government.

So, there was clearly a need for a stronger central government. However, weaker sections, small merchants and agriculturalists didn’t want a strong central government. They feared strong centre with its army and bureaucracy to impost the taxes on all and collect it.

Constitutional Convention, Philadelphia (1787-89)

The convention met in the Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (1787), ostensibly to amend the Articles of Confederation, but ended up writing a new Constitution altogether.

The 55 delegates included many of the leading figures of the period. Among them were George Washington, who was elected to preside, James Madison, Benjamin Franklin, James Wilson, John Rutledge, Charles Pinckney, Oliver Ellsworth, and Gouverneur Morris.

Among the first things that the Convention did were to choose a presiding officer, unanimously electing George Washington to be the president of the convention.

Discarding the idea of amending the Articles of Confederation, the assembly set about drawing up a new scheme of government but found itself divided, delegates from small states opposing those from large states over the apportionment of representation.

Most of the delegates voted for a powerful central government capable of establishing law and order, paying off debt, promoting economic growth, and protecting American interests on the foreign soil. At the same time, they took care that the popular opinion about the rights of the provinces should not be disregarded.

Second, they ignored the concept of universal adult franchise because they believed that this type of government would affect the right to property and enlightened leadership. They were not in favour of abolishing majority rule, they only wanted to secure the interests of the wealthy minorities.

Then the emphasis of these constitution makers was on establishing a balance among the different interests. In particular, the emphasis was to establish a balance between property and numbers in such a way that the poor should not be exploited by the rich, on the other hand the poor also could not forcefully deprive the rich people of property.

Features of the American constitution

• • Government to have executive, legislative and judicial arm
  • ◦ Separation of power
  • ◦ Check & Balance
  • ◦ Bicameral legislature
• • A republican government and representative democracy
  • ◦ Directly elected president.
  • ◦ Limited franchise
  • ◦ 538 members of Electoral college
• • Federal structure
• • Fundamental rights

Sectional Tensions: Controversies

	Issue	Solution
Big states vs small state	Small states demanded equality in representation of states, while big states pleaded for representation on the s of the states.	Connecticut (Great) Compromise: Bicameral legislature • Proportional representation in the lower house.   – Congress, for 2 years term   – Responsible to people • Equal representation of the states in the upper house   – Senate, 6 years term, with 1/3 rolling retirement cycle All revenue measures would originate in the lower house. But the upper house was slightly more powerful overall because it represented states.
Free state vs slave state	Slaveholding states demanded that while providing them representation in the House of Representatives even slaves had to be counted. Free states opposed this move for fear of losing the status of majority in the lower chamber.	Settled by a compromise agreement that three-fifths of the ‘other persons’ should be counted as population in representation and should also be counted as property in assessing taxes.
Federalist vs Democratic debate	Big merchants, financiers, capitalists & bankers favoured a strong federal government for economic protection against European competition. Lower peasants and merchants opposed a federal government because it would impose and collect high taxes with iron hand (strong army/police)	To avoid tyranny of the government, the Constitution embraced two principles: (1) Strict separation of power: The powers of the executive and judiciary were enumerated, and the Constitution was itself declared to be the “supreme law of the land.” (2) Federalism: governmental authority rests both in the national and the state governments. The national government set up by the Constitution possessed limited enumerated powers only. To protect against the tyranny of majority (1) Senators were elected by the states, usually by state legislatures. (2) Electoral College   ◦ The electors were supposed to be prominent, educated men of property who were better able to elect a president. However, since most delegates in the Convention wanted a stronger centre, this debate was not resolved satisfactorily. Thus, afterwards we have the first 10 amendments called Bill of Rights.

Every previous national authority had been either a centralized government, or a confederation of sovereign constituent states. The Constitutional Convention created a new, unprecedented form of government by reallocating powers of government. Thus, in 1789 in Philadelphia Congress, the constitution which was adopted was a compromise between big states & smaller states, slave states & Free states, and federalist & non-federalist.

After nearly four months of debate, the draft was finalized in Sept 1787. 39/55 delegates signed it. Benjamin Franklin summed up the sentiments of those who did sign, stating: “There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them.” He would accept the Constitution, “because I expect no better and because I am not sure that it is not the best”.

Federalist vs anti-Federalist debate —> Bill of Rights

Since most delegates in the Convention were Federalists, who came from capitalist interest and thus wanted a stronger center, the debate between federalist-democratic was not resolved satisfactorily during the Convention. This debate came to fore during the process of ratification by the states (1787-1790).

Ratification by 9/13 states was required. Each state had a special convention where delegates could vote on whether or not to adopt the new constitution.

In 1787, there were many prominent politicians on both sides of the debate and public opinion was evenly divided. The main disagreement between Federalists and Anti-Federalists was over how much power the federal government should have. Throughout the debate, both attempted to disseminate their views to the general public. This debate helped clarify America’s political ideology.

Federalist	Anti-Federalist
Ben Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison	John Hancock, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, George Mason, and Mercy Otis Warren.
• They came from the cities and represented commercial classes. They felt that a strong centre would benefit country as a whole. A stronger national government would improve relationships between states, and help create, as the Constitution stated, a “more perfect union.”	They were usually supported by common people, small farmers who weren’t as involved in commercial activity. They wanted weak centre and strong states. • They saw less need for a strong national government that would foster trade and protect creditors. • They were very afraid of a strong government (especially one dominated by the wealthy) which would be prone to tyranny. • They pushed for the addition of a bill of rights, which would guarantee several rights and freedoms of individual. • A smaller unit of states, closer to people, would be more responsive to people needs.

Thus, in Feb 1788, a compromise was reached with the states holding ratification out. These states agreed to ratify the document with the assurance that amendments will be immediately proposed. Thus, it became the law of the Land.

George Washington became the first president of the USA and, in 1790, the government was fully operative. Just within 2 years of passing the constitution, the first 10 amendments called Bill of Rights were passed in 1791, as a single unit. On the basis of these amendments, Fundamental Rights were provided to the people. These ten amendments to the Constitution guarantee many of the rights and freedoms we now consider hallmarks of the American democracy.

The Bill of Rights derives from the Magna Carta (1215), the English Bill of Rights (1689), the colonial struggle against king and Parliament, and a gradually broadening concept of equality among the American people.

Rights:

• • First Amendment: Congress can make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting its free exercise, or abridging freedom of speech or press or the right to assemble and petition for redress of grievances.
• • Second Amendment: Right to bear arms.
• • Fifth Amendment: requires grand jury indictment in prosecutions for major crimes and prohibits double jeopardy for a single offense. It provides that no person shall be compelled to testify against himself and forbids the taking of life, liberty, or property without due process of law and the taking of private property for public use (eminent domain) without just compensation.
• • Sixth and Seventh Amendment: Trial by jury.
• • Ninth Amendment: protects unenumerated residual rights of the people.
• • Tenth Amendment: powers not delegated to the United States are reserved to the states or the people.

“An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States” – Charles Beard

The American constitution has been interpreted by various scholars ever since its drafting in 1787.

In 1913, a very controversial interpretation was put forward by Charles A Beard, that it was an economic document. He is known for radical re-evaluation of the Founding Fathers of the United States, whom he believed to be more motivated by economics than by philosophical principles.

His progressive interpretation of the Constitution assumed class-conflict. To Beard, the Constitution was a counter-revolution set up by rich bondholders, against the farmers and planters. Beard argued the Constitution was designed to reverse the radical democratic tendencies unleashed by the Revolution among the common people, especially farmers and debtors.

Representation: (elite interest group)

• • Most of the delegates were rich merchants and big landlords. Out of the 55-delegate Convention, 25 were slave owners.
• • The delegates to the Constitution Convention were sent by state assemblies whose voting rights were based on property qualification. In fact, about 75% of qualified voters were excluded from the election process on one ground or another.
• • It was supported by those sections of the population that had huge assets and investment in trade. The weak and poor sections of the population opposed it when it was drafted.

Thus, the ordinary poor Americans did not play any role either directly or indirectly in the drafting of constitution. Beard emphasized that Constitution Convention was made by rich class. When the British rule came to an end, this rich class captured the power through constitutional convention.

Substantive Clauses:

Beard found that provisions of the constitution indicate its economic character:

• • It guaranteed the rights to private property as a fundamental inviolable right. This provision was in accordance with the aspirations of rich class and was against interest of ordinary Americans who were not well off.
• • Other provisions such as Laissez Faire, continuation of voting rights on basis of property qualification and continuation of practice of slavery were in accordance with aspirations of rich population.

This interpretation put forward by beard enjoyed acceptance for almost half a century, till 1950s. With the emergence of the Cold War, there was successful re-evaluation of his thesis.

• • Forrest McDonald (1958) carried out a fresh examination of the entire constitutional scheme.
  • ◦ They argue that Beard’s reliance on economic data and property ownership records is overly reductionist.
  • ◦ Beard had misinterpreted the economic interests due to the lens of class-conflict. They argue that the framers were driven by a complex mix of economic, political, and ideological factors. While economic interests may have played a role, they contend that the framers also had broader goals such as creating a stable government and protecting individual liberties.

By 1950s, Beard’s economic determinism was largely replaced by the intellectual history approach, which stressed the power of ideas, especially republicanism, in stimulating the Revolution. It argues that the constitution is not just an economic document because its provisions deal with politico-admin, socio-cultural and religious issues as well.

• • Idea of equal protection of law which is pro- common people.
• • It guaranteed the freedom of religious beliefs and practices. It is cosmopolitan in character.
• • The democratic system envisioned.

Thus,

• • “While it is true that many of the delegates at the Constitutional Convention had economic interests, the Constitution they produced cannot be reduced to a simple economic document. The framers were influenced by a range of political and philosophical ideas that went beyond narrow economic self-interest.” (Gordon Wood)
• • “The framers of the Constitution were deeply influenced by Enlightenment ideas and political theory. Their goal was to create a government that balanced power and protected individual liberties, not simply to protect their economic interests.”(Bernard Bailyn)

Thus, the constitution cannot be accepted as an economic document only. However, the legacy of examining the economic interests of historical actors is still found in the 21st century.

Features of American Constitution: Comparative Perspective

Was every feature of the American constitution of British in origin?

British constitution is an unwritten constitution that came about during the process of growth of representative parliamentary structure.

American colonists were of British origin. So, obviously they shared the constitutional vision of the British people. It was due to this fact that certain provisions of the American constitution seem to be of British origin.

However, many other factors played a role when Americans developed their constitution.

• • British constitution ensured a model of a unitary government.
  • ◦ But the outlook shaped due to cultural diversity, spirit of freedom, cosmopolitanism, pluralism.
• • British presented a model which fused monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy into one. There were no such constraints of feudalism, aristocracy, or monarchy in the US. Infused with the ideas of European enlightenment, Americans found republicanism more suitable.
• • It was an unwritten constitution which had evolved through centuries.
  • ◦ The British government functioned mainly based on customs and tradition which required some consensus on basic constitutional values.
• • Capitalism was the dominant idea among Americans.
• • For British, parliamentary sovereignty was a solution to monarchical despotism. But Americans, who experienced that even the British parliament can be despotic and a threat to their freedom, it was individual rights, judicial supremacy and separation of power that mattered more.

So, Americans developed a different sense of constitutionalism.

Similarity	Dissimilarity
• Rule of law • The control of Congress on taxation matters • British Magna Carta and Bill of Rights became the precursor of American fundamental rights.	• Unwritten vs written. • Evolution vs Adopted constitution. • Monarchical vs Republican • Prime ministerial vs Presidential • Parliamentary supremacy vs Judicial supremacy • No check and balances vs checks and balances • Unitary vs Federal • Fusion of power vs Separation of power • Single citizenship vs Dual citizenship • Natural rights vs Bill of Rights.

UPSC CSE PYQs – American Constitution

• • What were the factors that worked in the drafting of the American Constitution? Do you agree with Beard’s view of the Constitution being an Economic Document? [2005, 60 Marks]
• • How far is it correct to say that every feature of the American Constitution was ultimately of English Origin? [2010, 20 Marks]
• • Explain the main features of the US Federal Constitution. [2016, 10 Marks]

Handout 9: American Civil War (1861-65)

The American Civil War (1861-65) was fought between the Union (the North) and the Confederacy of seceded 11 states (the South). The war began after decades of tensions between the northern and southern states over slavery, states’ rights, and westward expansion.

It was the bloodiest conflict in entire American history, in which 2000+ battles were fought, 6.20 lakh+ people were killed and more than double of this were injured. More than 2000 battles were fought b/w forces of union and rebellious southern states. This war had continued for more than 4 years, and it had shaken the American union to the core.

Causes of Civil War

There were many factors which prepared the background of the American Civil War. Some scholars consider slave system as the foremost cause for this war, while some others consider the issue of unity and security of the American federalism as an important reason. In fact, the American Civil War involved many theories and questions.

• • Slavery as a Moral issue:
  • ◦ Northern and southern states had different views on the issue of slavery.
  • ◦ North American states, which were more liberal and progressive, declared the slavery as amoral/evil.
  • ◦ In the southern states, social status of family was dependent on number of slaves held by it. These states tried to justify it on the moral ground while taking a reference from ‘the Bible’.
• • Economic issues:
  • ◦ Northern and central parts of United States of America were economically more advanced, and they were carrying industrialization. ‘Free wage labour’ was the demand for industrialization, but not slavery. So, slavery didn’t have economic value for them.
  • ◦ Slavery was the lifeblood of the economy of southern American states, as they were involved in plantation agriculture, which was heavily export oriented and labour intensive.
    • ■ Gained new vitality when extremely profitable cotton-based agriculture developed in the South in the early 19th century.
  • ◦ Another economic issue
    • ■ The newly industrialist class of North America wanted protection of American industries from foreign competition.
    • ■ The southern states objected it because due to the protectionist policy, they received manufactured goods at expensive prices.
• • Political issue:
  • ◦ European scholars and humanitarians constantly criticized America for its slavery system. In Europe, slavery was abolished already by 1833 in Britain but USA alone remained.
  • ◦ (Tidbit - Brazil abolished slavery in 1888)
• • Constitutional issue:
  • ◦ During the westward expansion (‘Manifest Destiny’), the integration of every region raised the question of Free-vs-Slave state.
  • ◦ This question was associated with the constitutional issue of representation in the House of Representatives.

Polarization on the issue of Slavery

• • With the expansion of America westward, the issue of Slave/Free state became complicated. To avert the situation of conflict with every new state induction, Henry Clay initiated the Missouri Agreement in 1820.
  • ◦ Missouri was inducted as a slave state
  • ◦ The regions north of 30° 36 parallel in Louisiana land and to the west of Missouri had to be inducted as a Free State in the future. Otherwise, it would be inducted as a slave state.
  • ◦ This plan didn’t give any permanent solution as the southern states didn’t stick to its term and created problems with the induction of every new state including Texas, California, Kansas and Nebraska.
• • Decade of 1850s
  • ◦ Texas and California → Compromise of 1850
    • ■ Texas was inducted into the USA as Slave state in 1845.
    • ■ Now California wanted to enter as a free-state, but it would have upset Free-Slave balance.
    • ■ Compromise of 1850 (series of 5 bills), to maintain free-slave balance.
      • California admitted as a free state.
      • New Mexico and Utah – without mentioning Slavery (popular sovereignty would decide)
      • Slave trade abolished in Washington DC
      • Amending Fugitive Slave Act (to satisfy southern states)
  • ◦ Kansas-Nebraska Act 1854: Climax of the dispute.
    • ■ These states should have been incorporated as slave free-states according to the Missouri Accords. But a political leader named King Stephen Douglas included these two states as slave states in order to get votes of southern states. Naturally there was resentment in northern states.
  • ◦ Response from North: Strengthening of Abolitionist movement.
    • ■ Antislavery northerners, who held the Missouri Compromise sacrosanct, condemned Douglas for being a dupe of southern interests.
    • ■ So far northern states used to oppose the slavery system in principle, but now a full scale ‘Abolitionist Movement’ started to emerge which encouraged antislavery consciousness and gathered momentum.
    • ■ Literature: ‘Uncle Tome’s Cabin’ by HB Stove (1852) played the powerful role in mobilizing public opinion. It evoked a far-reaching emotional response which further strengthened abolitionist cause.
    • ■ It helped the rise of the anti-slavery Republican Party.
      • The Republican Party was founded in the northern states in 1854 and grew out of opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act. It quickly became the principal opposition to the dominant Democratic Party.
      • In the Presidential election of 1856, Democrat James Buchanan defeated Republican John C. Frémont. However, once dominant Whig party was almost collapsed in the wake of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
  • ◦ Role of American Supreme Court: Dred Scott verdict (1857) (Chief Justice Roger B. Taney)
    • ■ Slavery was enshrined the American constitution. Slaves were just like Chattel without rights. Like property.
    • ■ It voided the Missouri Compromise (1820) and made slavery legal in entire U.S.
    • ■ Anti-slavery movement suffered a deep blow by this decision, which confirmed that the scope for compromise was exhausted.
• • No more compromises possible.
  • ◦ By this point many Americans, North and South, had concluded that slavery and freedom could not much longer coexist in the United States. There was an irreconcilable conflict between freedom and slavery. The compromises going on since 1820 became impossible by the 1850s.
  • ◦ For Southerners the answer was withdrawal from a Union that no longer protected their rights and interests
    • ■ They had talked of it as early as the Nashville Convention of 1850, when the compromise measures were under consideration.
    • ■ Now more and more Southerners favoured secession.
  • ◦ For Northerners the remedy was to change the social institutions of the South
    • ■ Few advocated immediate or complete emancipation of enslaved people
    • ■ Most felt that the South’s “peculiar institution” must be contained.
    • ■ A rising Republican politician, Abraham Lincoln (Illinois) unsuccessfully contested Douglas for a seat in the Senate, announced that “A house divided against itself cannot stand this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free.”(1858)
    • ■ Harpers Ferry Raid 1859 An armed band of abolitionists led by John Brown raided a federal armoury to incite slave rebellion. It became a main precipitating incident to the American Civil War.
• • Election of 1860:
  • ◦ Abraham Lincoln was the candidate of anti-Slavery Republican Party. In his election manifesto, two issues were much prominent:
    • ■ Abolition of slavery
    • ■ Protectionism for industries
  • ◦ Many Southerners saw the potential election of Abraham Lincoln as a threat to their way of life and the harbinger of secession. But most people didn’t expect Lincoln to win the election. However, due to internal split within the Democratic Party, Lincoln won the presidential election.
• • Secession:
  • ◦ In the South, Lincoln’s election was taken as the signal for secession, and on December 20 South Carolina became the first state to withdraw from the Union. By Lincoln’s inauguration in March, seven Southern states had seceded. Later it increased to eleven.
  • ◦ Southern states considered that their steps were permissible under the Constitution as they believed in the doctrine of state sovereignty.
  • ◦ Faced with a fait accompli, Lincoln, when inaugurated, was prepared to conciliate the South in every way but one: he would not recognize that the Union could be divided. In April the American Civil War began.

Contribution of Abraham Lincoln

• • He fought the civil war not in the name of abolition of slavery, but in the name of protection of the American Union.
  • ◦ After entering the office of American President on 4th March 1861, Lincoln tried to persuade the rebellious southern states to abandon their separatist policy and declare their faith in American union. Talks were held between the representatives of the Union and Confederate. Lincoln repeatedly emphasized that emancipation shall not be imposed on any state against its will.
  • ◦ He declared that “If I can save the union through freeing all slaves, we do it, if we can save union through not freeing any slave, I will do it & if I can save the union through freeing some slaves, but not some others, I will also do that.’ (1862)
  • ◦ Southern states had declared secession from the Union on the basis of the ‘concept of state sovereignty’, but Lincoln rejected it and rather he propagated the concept of the sovereignty of the federation. If states are indestructible, so is the federal union. So, he very sagaciously, first made the stance of southern state unconstitutional and illegal.
  • ◦ Constitutional position was also important because otherwise this would have become an international war.
  • ◦ When civil war broke out American parliament passed a resolution by which the Union was declared Insoluble.
• • Emancipation Proclamation (1863)
  • ◦ In the midst of the Civil War (1861-65), Lincoln emancipated slavery in South (1863)
  • ◦ It freed only those slaves held in the Confederate States of America. It was intended not to benefit the slaves but to hamper the Southern war efforts.
• • Thirteenth Amendment (1865)
  • ◦ Slavery was nationally abolished through the 13th Amendment.
    • ■ Lincoln played a significant role in securing congressional support for the 13th Amendment, which permanently abolished slavery throughout the United States. He used his political skills to garner the necessary votes and build a coalition of supporters.
  • ◦ After passing the amendment, Lincoln signed it, but he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth before it was ratified by requisite number of states.

Gettysburg Address

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.

But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate -- we can not consecrate -- we can not hallow -- this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us -- that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion -- that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom -- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

Abraham Lincoln
November 19, 1863

Significance of American Civil War

The Union won the war due to their superior resources, transportation, and industrial capacity. The Union’s victory was also due to the leadership of President Abraham Lincoln and the military strategies of General Ulysses S. Grant.

• • Devastating Modern War
  • ◦ The American Civil War is considered the first modern war.
    • ■ Railways, telegraph, and newspapers played an important role in influencing public opinion.
    • ■ Both the naval and the army performed important tasks.
  • ◦ The war was horribly costly for both sides.
    • ■ Federal forces: 3.5 lakh+ deaths
    • ■ Confederate armies: 2.5 lakh+ deaths.
    • ■ Both governments took loans and printed fiat money to finance the war (collectively more than $15b)
  • ◦ The south was physically and economically devastated.
    • ■ Most of the war was fought in South.
    • ■ It lost its labour system.
  • ◦ Thus, although the Union was preserved and restored, the cost in physical and moral suffering was incalculable, and some emotional wounds caused by the war still have not been healed.
• • It was a partly successful social surgery of the USA, as a result of which it emerged to be more powerful. After this, cultural and economic integration between the North and the South American states became possible.
  • ◦ 13th Amendment abolished slavery
  • ◦ 14th Amendment gave citizenship
  • ◦ 15th Amendment gave black voting rights.
• • It proved a capitalist movement due to following factors:
  • ◦ After the abolition of slavery, even southern American states moved for industrialization. Therefore, the USA underwent a capitalist transformation as industrialization became all-pervasive.
  • ◦ Factors
    • ■ It also led to the economic integration of America.
    • ■ Protectionism: after the civil war, USA followed the protectionist policy in favour of its industries, for more than half a century. It did so at a time when in the rest part of the world free trade policy was being encouraged.
• • It is not merely a coincidence that the economy of USA manifested the fastest rate of growth between 1870 and 1970. Here, the abolition of slavery worked as a major trigger.

UPSC CSE PYQs – American Civil War

• • “If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.”. Comment. [1986, 20 Marks]
• • Examine the issues involved in the American Civil War. Was it a contest between two separate nations? [1991, 60 Marks]
• • “Six hundred thousand men had died. The union was preserved, the slaves freed. A nation ‘conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal’ had survived its most terrible ordeal.” Critically examine. [2013, 10 Marks]
• • “A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently, half slave and half free” Explain Abraham Lincoln’s perspective. [2016, 20 Marks]
• • “Lincoln’s main thesis was that the Slavery issue had to be decided one way or the other and could no longer be evaded by compromise.” Comment in the light of his role in the American Civil War. [2020, 20 Marks]
• • In the American civil war, the victory of the North had many consequences. Some of them were direct and obvious. However, its indirect effects on American development were perhaps even more important. Comment. [2021, 20 Marks]

Handout 10: French Revolution 1: Causes

“It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.”
– Charles Dickens, “A Tale of Two Cities”

“Liberty, equality, fraternity, or death.”
– Maximilien Robespierre

“A revolution is a struggle between the future and the past.”
– Fidel Castro

“In revolutions, the first victor is the one who seizes the imagination of the future.”
– Hannah Arendt, “On Revolution”

By the end of 18th c., Europe had undergone profound change under the influence of Enlightenment. Philosophers and artists promoted reasoning and human freedom over traditions and religion. The rise of a middle class and availability of printed material encouraged political awareness, and the American Revolution had turned a former English colony into an independent republic.

Yet France, one of the largest and richest European countries was still governed by Ancien Regime, a three-level rigid social class system. The French Revolution was a major landmark which challenged the Ancien Regime and led to the formation of a new republic. It established the power and prestige of the middle class parallel to the monarchy, the nobility and the church.

This phenomenon didn’t remain restricted to France only, rather it proved to be a widespread upheaval which shook all institutions in other part of Europe as well. Thus, the French Revolution gave a definite shape to the transitional process from the Middle Age into the Modern Age, which began with the Renaissance in the European history.

Causes of the French Revolution

1. Social divisions in Early Modern France: Ancien Regime

The estates of the realm were the orders of social hierarchy used in Christian Europe of the Middle Ages.

• • England: two-estate system with nobility + clergy into one lordly estate and “commons” as the second estate.
• • French Ancien Régime (Old Regime): A three-estate system of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate).
• • Sweden and Russia: A four-estate system with rural commoners ranking the lowest as the Fourth Estate.
• • The first & second estate enjoyed various economic & social privileges:
  • ◦ The French political system was aristocratic in nature. All the high offices under the state were monopolized by nobles and clergymen.
  • ◦ First Estate (Church, clergy class): Only 1% population (1.5 lakh in 2.5m) but controlled 10% land. It was itself exempted from all sorts of tax.
  • ◦ Second Estate (Aristocracy): owning vast land, collecting tax, free gifts (milk, fruits) and corvee from peasants. Their population was around 1% but they controlled more than 15% of the nation’s resources. Since they controlled vast tracts of land, they dominated the countryside.
• • The Third Estate (98% people)
  • ◦ The middle class (bourgeoise of rich peasants, intellectuals, teachers, merchants etc.) was highly dissatisfied with its position as its economic status largely improved, but it was socially deprived.
    • ■ In France, there was a major contradiction between economically effective class & socially effective class (David Thomson). They were educated and awakened. Although the burden of taxes on them was quite less when compared with peasants and other poorer sections of society, the level of discontent was most intense. It was this middle class that was in forefront in the French Revolution, at least during the initial phase.
  • ◦ The lower class was aggrieved due to tax burden and excessive feudal exaction. Peasants formed 85% of population and paid most of the taxes.
    • ■ Taille (land tax)
    • ■ Gabelle (salt tax)
    • ■ Tithe (called Dime) to Church.
    • ■ Feudal dues, gifts
    • ■ Corvee (free labour) to Lords.

One major reason the French Revolution was the dissatisfaction of members of the Third Estate, who wanted a more equal distribution of wealth, power and privilege.

2. Economic factors:

• • The French economy continued to be in the medieval state, because even during 1780s there was no trace of industrial Revolution in French.
  • ◦ Agriculture:
    • ■ Most of land was owned by the Church and Feudal lords.
    • ■ There were large no peasant-proprietors.
    • ■ Peasants were heavily burdened with taxes.
  • ◦ Industries:
    • ■ Handicraft-based, level of production was low.
    • ■ Guilds enjoyed monopolistic control.
• • Calamities, disaster and decline after growth: Despite the limitations, French economy widely expanded between 1730s and 1760s – three-fold growth in agriculture and 5-fold increase in industry within two generations. But from 1770s onwards, there was a decline due to:
  • ◦ After the American war of independence, inflow of precious metal decreased, and there was a sort of depressionary situation in French economy.
  • ◦ Incidents of crop failure in France consecutively in 1788-89.
    • ■ It led to famines, shortages and finally bread riots occurred with the outbreak of the revolutions.
    • ■ It also led to huge hunger-driven out-migration of peasants towards the cities, esp Paris, looking for new occupations.
  • ◦ Bankruptcy of government and failure of economic reforms.
  • ◦ Impact on middle class
    • ■ Economic decline following a long period of prosperity created a deep psychological effect.
    • ■ Firstly, the interests of the aristocracy and the middle class began to collide. Secondly, both these classes were unhappy with the monarchy.

Thus, overall, there was a dismal economic condition. So, economic decline was not the cause of the Revolution, rather economic crisis that set-in after a long period of growth was the cause of the revolution.

3. Ideological factors:

(A) Direct influence:
An all-encompassing event like French Revolution can never occur in the condition of intellectual vacuum. The writings of the French scholars like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, and Rousseau certainly contributed to the outbreak of the revolution.

The French citizens valued the ideas of liberty and equality discussed by Rousseau and Voltaire etc., and these ideas formed the core of Revolutionary ideology. Thus, French Revolution is when the ideas of the Enlightenment were put into action.

• • The thinkers drew the attention of the people towards existing political, economic & social apathy. They openly criticized the autocracy of the monarchy, the dogma of the nobility and the superstition of the Church. They created a revolutionary awakening among the people to the outbreak of the revolution.
• • They coined/popularized certain revolutionary terms/slogans like liberty, equality, fraternity, rule of law (loi), citizen (citoyen), homeland (patrie), individual rights.
• • The Enlightenment ideas were particularly popularized in France by the influence of the American War of Independence
• • Revolutionaries used the ideas to formulate their strategy:
  • ◦ Fictional dialogue with Montesquieu and Rousseau by Abbé Sièyes’ ‘What is the Third Estate?’ (1789)
  • ◦ Its influence can clearly be seen in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

(B) Minimal/Insignificant Influence:

• • Unlike American leaders Thomas Jefferson & Benjamin Franklin, the thinkers didn’t participate. At the time of the revolution, none of the thinkers was alive.
• • Books which ultimately shaped the public opinion were more of the semi-pornographic/scandalous novels and tabloid/libelous journals which purported to expose the sexual and moral corruption of the court. It damaged the credibility and led to desacralization of monarchy.
• • Marxist interpretation emphasizes long-term structural factors.
  • ◦ French Revolution not simply a political struggle from absolute monarchy towards democratic republicanism, it was a bourgeois revolution, essentially marked by class conflict. It represented destruction of nobility, and a shift from feudalism to capitalism. Since the Enlightenment thinkers came from middle-class background and thus believed in peaceful transformation, not in revolution. (e.g. enlightened despotism or constitutional monarchy)
  • ◦ In one way, the Revolution was the anti-thesis of Enlightenment. Where Enlightenment philosophers looked to an informed public opinion to exert an indirect, restraining influence on government, and supported gradual progress of the society, the revolutionaries were committed to the overthrow of the ancien régime by direct action.

(C) Indirect influence: Catalyst

• • The outbreak of the French Revolution was the result of the combined effect of various factors working together. It was a response and reaction to evils prevailing in French politico-admin system social, religious, and economic system. So, even though the Philosophers didn’t create the circumstances responsible for the revolution, they certainly exposed the ills of the Ancien regime and provided alternative vision.
  • ◦ The people were already suffering, and discontent was accumulating in them since a long time. The awakening created by Philosophers intensified the pain by drawing attention of masses towards limitation of existing regime. So, the philosophers played the role of catalyst.
• • Thinkers formed one of the earliest forms of civil society i.e., debating clubs, coffee houses, salons etc. through which their ideas circulated rapidly.
  • ◦ The ideas discussed in clubs/meetings resulted in a breakdown of the stratification, fundamentally changing France’s social organization.
    • ■ When the Estates-General was called, its rigid organization conflicted with the new, informal organization, and caused dissent; and the King’s refusal to equality triggered their secession from royal authority.
• • The ideas only played a part after the Revolution had begun; it was used to justify revolutionary action.
  • ◦ In the midst of the revolution, the leaders quoted these philosophers at their convenience.
  • ◦ The revolution embraced a radical ideology of popular sovereignty (General Will) so that any abuse of power could be excused so long as it was achieved in the name of the people.
  • ◦ Thus, the philosophers reflected public discontent. Therefore, the role of those philosophers cannot be seen in isolation.

4. Political factors:

• • French polity was absolutist (Bourbon dynasty) and the Divine right of the monarch was the guiding principle. As a consequence, the French Politico-Admin system was centralized in nature. Such system required a king of exceptional abilities for its effective management.
  • ◦ It functioned well under Louis XIII and XIV (1643-1715) but under their successors Louis XV (1715-1774) and Louis XVI (1774-92), the evils of centralised despotism started becoming visible. Neither of the successors of Louis XIV were competent enough to tackle the complex situation. Therefore, economic & social unrest were allowed to culminate into a major political crisis which became a prelude to the revolution.
• • The suffering of people increased enormously because the aristocracy started misusing authority of state for their own benefit.
  • ◦ E.g the judicial/legal system in France was arbitrary and the concept of rule of law was absent. The word of the king was the law of the land. The worst feature was the instrument of ‘letters de cachet’.

It was this accumulated discontent among the masses that came out in the form of massive revolution in 1789.

5. Immediate factor:

The French government had taken no interest in the advancement of economy.

• • There was no system of budget in French.
• • The tax system was unscientific and irrational because rich/privileged class was free from the burden of taxes while all the taxes were paid by commoners.
• • The French participation of American war of Independence ruined the financial health completely because an amount on this war.

Thus, the first problem before the French monarchy was to overcome the financial crisis.

• • Louis XVI appointed a number of capable ministers such as Turgot (1774-76), Necker (1776-81), Cologne (1783-87) Brienne (1787-88) but they were dismissed one after the other when they suggested the imposition of taxes on privileged class. Thus, the economic bankruptcy of the French government and its desperate attempt to find a solution led to the summoning of the Estate General, which had remained in the state of animated suspension for the last 175 years.
• • The news of the meeting of the ‘Estates General’ made excited all the sections of French society. The decision to convene the Estate General was welcomed by all the three Estates. They considered it as a panacea for all the problems.
  • ◦ The privileged class saw it as a means to reassert its power and privileges.
  • ◦ The bourgeoisie saw it as an opportunity for fundamental constitutional reforms, which would enable the bourgeoisie to exert more control over the political institutions and to redesign the economic structure by changing the taxation norms.
  • ◦ For peasantry it was a means by which the unequal distribution of taxation would be remedied.
• • The Estates-General were summoned by a royal edict dated to 24 January 1789.
  • ◦ The summoning of Estate General under the combined pressure of the Estates was taken as the collapse of monarchy.
  • ◦ Finally, in May 1789 the session of the Estates General started. It meant that the monarchy had surrendered.
  • ◦ It was in Estate General on the issue of Voting that the differences among different classes took the form of a political crisis.
  • ◦ Finally, the representatives of the third estate boycotted the session and moved to Tennis Court Assembly in nearby region. It is here they were joined by artisans of Paris and peasants of France popularly known as ‘Mob of Paris’. Thus, started the revolution.

From the Estates-General to National Assembly

• • Voting Procedure
  • ◦ Such a session had taken place 175 years ago, so there was no latest tradition.
  • ◦ Earlier tradition: Three Estates to meet in three different chambers - each to vote separately. The value of each Estate was similar. Thus, Nobles and Clergy could together outvote the Commons by 2 to 1. This issue was widely discussed in the press during the autumn of 1788.
  • ◦ As the press began to demand that the Commons be allocated more delegates, to bolster his failing popularity, the King acceded to this measure of “doubling the Third.” He was confident of his influence over the Nobility and Clergy.
• • Elections during early 1789
  • ◦ Total elected delegates: 1,200 (about 300+300+600)
  • ◦ French society had changed since 1614, and these Estates-General were not identical to those of 1614.
  • ◦ Many nobles were elected to the Third Estate. The total number of nobles in the three Estates was about 400. Noble representatives of the Third Estate were among the most passionate revolutionaries in attendance, including Jean Joseph Mounier and the Comte de Mirabeau.
  • ◦ Some clergy were also elected as Third Estate delegates, most notably the Abbé Sieyès.
• • King’s Miscalculation:
  • ◦ Aristocracy: The Nobles in the Second Estate were the richest and most powerful in the kingdom. The King thought he could count on them. However, since the aristocracy was vociferously against monarchy, the first salvo came from aristocracy only.
  • ◦ Clergy: The king also expected that the First Estate would be predominantly the noble Bishops. The electorate, however, returned mainly parish priests, most of whom were sympathetic to the Commons.
  • ◦ Third Estate elections returned predominantly magistrates and lawyers.
    • ■ As the session started inside the palace of Versailles, on 5th May 1789, the common people of lower class were not allowed to go there. Thus, only middle classes could go and join.
    • ■ So, the middle class represented both itself and lower class.
• • Opening of the Estates-General (5th May)
  • ◦ Differences on the issue of Voting led to a political crisis.
    • ■ On 6th May, the Third Estate discovered that the royal decree, despite granting double representation, upheld the traditional voting “by orders”.
    • ■ The Third Estate wanted the estates to meet as one body and for each delegate to have one vote.
  • ◦ Suspicion
    • ■ The representative of 3rd Estate came to attend the session of Estate general with great enthusiasm. They brought the letter of Grievances (Cahiers) but the moment the session of Estate general commenced their hopes got shattered because the Privileged class wanted to prevent them.
    • ■ The realization of the anti-people nature of functioning propelled the representatives of 3rd Estate to demand the joint sitting of Parliament.
    • ■ This demand was rejected by the king and the representative of the privileged class.
• • National Constituent Assembly
  • ◦ On 13th June, Third Estate resolved to examine and settle the powers of the three orders.
    • ■ They declared themselves redefined as the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates, but of the people.
    • ■ They invited the other orders to join them but made it clear that they intended to conduct the nation’s affairs with or without them.
  • ◦ The King attempted to resist this reorganization of the Estates-General.
    • ■ On 20th June, he ordered the hall where the National Assembly met to be closed, and entry to the Third Estate was disallowed. The Assembly then went out, taking their deliberations to the nearby tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the ‘Tennis Court Oath’, agreeing not to disband until they had settled the constitution of France.
    • ■ The monarch now sent army to vacate the Tennis Court.
      • In the meantime, the news of all this tug-of-war broke out. Artisans and peasants (mob of Paris - Sans-culottes) surrounded them and thus police/army didn’t dare to crush them with iron hand. Brutal step couldn’t have been taken by them. Middle class leadership was saved by the active role of the lower class. Thus, started the revolution.
      • Failing to disperse the delegates, Louis reluctantly recognized their validity on 27 June.
    • ■ Now, those representatives of the nobility who still stood apart also joined the National Assembly. The Estates-General had ceased to exist, having become the National Assembly.
      • The Assembly renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July and began to function as a governing body and a constitution-drafter.

UPSC CSE PYQs – French Revolution

Causes: Philosophers’ role?

• • “The writings of the philosophers had a tremendous influence on the minds of the people and created a revolutionary awakening in their minds and formed the intellectual creed of the French Revolution.” Comment. [1983, 20m]
• • “What mattered in 1789 - and what made men revolutionary almost in spite of themselves - was the whole ‘revolutionary situation’; and in producing that situation the work of the philosophers played no very important role.” Comment. [1985, 20m]
• • “French political writers of the eighteenth century were influenced by Locke and also by the curious contrasts which they perceived between the government of his country and their own.” Comment. [1991, 20m]
• • “If monarchical misrule ignited the French revolution, lofty ideas both inspired and sustained it.” Comment. [1997, 20m]
• • “If monarchical misrule ignited the French Revolution, lofty ideas both inspired and sustained it.” Comment. [2002, 20m]
• • “The writings of the philosophers had a tremendous influence on the minds of the people and created a revolutionary awakening in their minds and formed the intellectual creed of the French Revolution.” Comment. [2005, 20m]
• • “No event as encompassing as the French Revolution occurs in an intellectual vacuum.” Comment. [2007, 20m]
• • “The connection between the philosophers’ ideas and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) is somewhat remote and indirect.” Critically evaluate. [2012, 10m]
• • Critically examine the statement that the French Revolution was not caused by the French philosophers but by the conditions of national life and by the mistakes of the government. [2016, 20m]

Causes: Other factors?

• • What were the ideals of the French Revolution of 1789? How far is it correct to say that it overthrew mercantilism and the surviving relics of feudalism and contributed to the political supremacy of the middle class? [1979, 60m]
• • “To some extent, the American War of Independence inspired the French Revolution.” Comment. [1999, 20m]
• • “The multiple contradictions that quickly undermined the new edifice had been expressed even before the meeting of the Estate General in France. The internal conflict among Estates had manifested itself.” Critically examine. [2015, 10m]
• • “The causes of the French Revolution of 1789 included both long term and structural factors, as well as more immediate events.” Critically examine. [2020, 10m]

Objectives and achievements

• • The French Revolution (1789) sought to remove both “the religious and secular props of the existing social order.” Elucidate. [1996, 20m]
• • “The French Revolution attacked privileges and not property.” Comment. [2003, 20m]
• • The French Revolution (1789) really achieved far less than what it intended to effect. Do you agree? [1989, 20m]
• • “The Declaration of Rights was the death-warrant of the system of privilege, and so of the ancient regime … Yet in the history of ideas it belonged rather to the past than to the future.” Examine. [2014, 20m]

Handout 10: French Revolution 1: Causes

“It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.” – Charles Dickens, “A Tale of Two Cities”

“Liberty, equality, fraternity, or death.” – Maximilien Robespierre

“A revolution is a struggle between the future and the past.” – Fidel Castro

“In revolutions, the first victor is the one who seizes the imagination of the future.” – Hannah Arendt, “On Revolution”

By the end of 18th c., Europe had undergone profound change under the influence of Enlightenment. Philosophers and artists promoted reasoning and human freedom over traditions and religion. The rise of a middle class and availability of printed material encouraged political awareness, and the American Revolution had turned a former English colony into an independent republic.

Yet France, one of the largest and richest European countries was still governed by Ancien Regime, a three-level rigid social class system. The French Revolution was a major landmark which challenged the Ancien Regime and led to the formation of a new republic. It established the power and prestige of the middle class parallel to the monarchy, the nobility and the church.

This phenomenon didn’t remain restricted to France only, rather it proved to be a widespread upheaval which shook all institutions in other part of Europe as well. Thus, the French Revolution gave a definite shape to the transitional process from the Middle Age into the Modern Age, which began with the Renaissance in the European history.

Causes of the French Revolution

1. Social divisions in Early Modern France: Ancien Regime

The estates of the realm were the orders of social hierarchy used in Christian Europe of the Middle Ages.

• • England: two-estate system with nobility + clergy into one lordly estate and “commons” as the second estate.
• • French Ancien Régime (Old Regime): A three-estate system of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate).
• • Sweden and Russia: A four-estate system with rural commoners ranking the lowest as the Fourth Estate.
• • The first & second estate enjoyed various economic & social privileges:
  • ◦ The French political system was aristocratic in nature. All the high offices under the state were monopolized by nobles and clergymen.
  • ◦ First Estate (Church, clergy class): Only 1% population (1.5 lakh in 2.5m) but controlled 10% land. It was itself exempted from all sorts of tax.
  • ◦ Second Estate (Aristocracy): owning vast land, collecting tax, free gifts (milk, fruits) and corvee from peasants. Their population was around 1% but they controlled more than 15% of the nation’s resources. Since they controlled vast tracts of land, they dominated the countryside.
• • The Third Estate (98% people)
  • ◦ The middle class (bourgeoise of rich peasants, intellectuals, teachers, merchants etc.) was highly dissatisfied with its position as its economic status largely improved, but it was socially deprived.
    • ■ In France, there was a major contradiction between economically effective class & socially effective class (David Thomson). They were educated and awakened. Although the burden of taxes on them was quite less when compared with peasants and other poorer sections of society, the level of discontent was most intense. It was this middle class that was in forefront in the French Revolution, at least during the initial phase.
  • ◦ The lower class was aggrieved due to tax burden and excessive feudal exaction. Peasants formed 85% of population and paid most of the taxes.
    • ■ Taille (land tax)
    • ■ Gabelle (salt tax)
    • ■ Tithe (called Dime) to Church.
    • ■ Feudal dues, gifts
    • ■ Corvee (free labour) to Lords.

One major reason the French Revolution was the dissatisfaction of members of the Third Estate, who wanted a more equal distribution of wealth, power and privilege.

2. Economic factors:

• • The French economy continued to be in the medieval state, because even during 1780s there was no trace of industrial Revolution in French.
  • ◦ Agriculture:
    • ■ Most of land was owned by the Church and Feudal lords.
    • ■ There were large no peasant-proprietors.
    • ■ Peasants were heavily burdened with taxes.
  • ◦ Industries:
    • ■ Handicraft-based, level of production was low.
    • ■ Guilds enjoyed monopolistic control.
• • Calamities, disaster and decline after growth: Despite the limitations, French economy widely expanded between 1730s and 1760s – three-fold growth in agriculture and 5-fold increase in industry within two generations. But from 1770s onwards, there was a decline due to:
  • ◦ After the American war of independence, inflow of precious metal decreased, and there was a sort of depressionary situation in French economy.
  • ◦ Incidents of crop failure in France consecutively in 1788-89.
    • ■ It led to famines, shortages and finally bread riots occurred with the outbreak of the revolutions.
    • ■ It also led to huge hunger-driven out-migration of peasants towards the cities, esp Paris, looking for new occupations.
  • ◦ Bankruptcy of government and failure of economic reforms.
  • ◦ Impact on middle class
    • ■ Economic decline following a long period of prosperity created a deep psychological effect.
    • ■ Firstly, the interests of the aristocracy and the middle class began to collide. Secondly, both these classes were unhappy with the monarchy.

Thus, overall, there was a dismal economic condition. So, economic decline was not the cause of the Revolution, rather economic crisis that set-in after a long period of growth was the cause of the revolution.

3. Ideological factors:

(A) Direct influence:

An all-encompassing event like French Revolution can never occur in the condition of intellectual vacuum. The writings of the French scholars like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, and Rousseau certainly contributed to the outbreak of the revolution.

The French citizens valued the ideas of liberty and equality discussed by Rousseau and Voltaire etc., and these ideas formed the core of Revolutionary ideology. Thus, French Revolution is when the ideas of the Enlightenment were put into action.

• • The thinkers drew the attention of the people towards existing political, economic & social apathy. They openly criticized the autocracy of the monarchy, the dogma of the nobility and the superstition of the Church. They created a revolutionary awakening among the people to the outbreak of the revolution.
• • They coined/popularized certain revolutionary terms/slogans like liberty, equality, fraternity, rule of law (loi), citizen (citoyen), homeland (patrie), individual rights.
• • The Enlightenment ideas were particularly popularized in France by the influence of the American War of Independence
• • Revolutionaries used the ideas to formulate their strategy:
  • ◦ Fictional dialogue with Montesquieu and Rousseau by Abbé Sièyes’ ‘What is the Third Estate?’ (1789)
  • ◦ Its influence can clearly be seen in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

(B) Minimal/Insignificant Influence:

• • Unlike American leaders Thomas Jefferson & Benjamin Franklin, the thinkers didn’t participate. At the time of the revolution, none of the thinkers was alive.
• • Books which ultimately shaped the public opinion were more of the semi-pornographic/scandalous novels and tabloid/libelous journals which purported to expose the sexual and moral corruption of the court. It damaged the credibility and led to desacralization of monarchy.
• • Marxist interpretation emphasizes long-term structural factors.
  • ◦ French Revolution not simply a political struggle from absolute monarchy towards democratic republicanism, it was a bourgeois revolution, essentially marked by class conflict. It represented destruction of nobility, and a shift from feudalism to capitalism. Since the Enlightenment thinkers came from middle-class background and thus believed in peaceful transformation, not in revolution. (e.g. enlightened despotism or constitutional monarchy)
  • ◦ In one way, the Revolution was the anti-thesis of Enlightenment. Where Enlightenment philosophers looked to an informed public opinion to exert an indirect, restraining influence on government, and supported gradual progress of the society, the revolutionaries were committed to the overthrow of the ancien régime by direct action.

(C) Indirect influence: Catalyst

• • The outbreak of the French Revolution was the result of the combined effect of various factors working together. It was a response and reaction to evils prevailing in French politico-admin system social, religious, and economic system. So, even though the Philosophers didn’t create the circumstances responsible for the revolution, they certainly exposed the ills of the Ancien regime and provided alternative vision.
  • ◦ The people were already suffering, and discontent was accumulating in them since a long time. The awakening created by Philosophers intensified the pain by drawing attention of masses towards limitation of existing regime. So, the philosophers played the role of catalyst.
• • Thinkers formed one of the earliest forms of civil society i.e., debating clubs, coffee houses, salons etc. through which their ideas circulated rapidly.
  • ◦ The ideas discussed in clubs/meetings resulted in a breakdown of the stratification, fundamentally changing France’s social organization.
    • ■ When the Estates-General was called, its rigid organization conflicted with the new, informal organization, and caused dissent; and the King’s refusal to equality triggered their secession from royal authority.
• • The ideas only played a part after the Revolution had begun; it was used to justify revolutionary action.
  • ◦ In the midst of the revolution, the leaders quoted these philosophers at their convenience.
  • ◦ The revolution embraced a radical ideology of popular sovereignty (General Will) so that any abuse of power could be excused so long as it was achieved in the name of the people.
  • ◦ Thus, the philosophers reflected public discontent. Therefore, the role of those philosophers cannot be seen in isolation.

4. Political factors:

• • French polity was absolutist (Bourbon dynasty) and the Divine right of the monarch was the guiding principle. As a consequence, the French Politico-Admin system was centralized in nature. Such system required a king of exceptional abilities for its effective management.
  • ◦ It functioned well under Louis XIII and XIV (1643-1715) but under their successors Louis XV (1715-1774) and Louis XVI (1774-92), the evils of centralised despotism started becoming visible. Neither of the successors of Louis XIV were competent enough to tackle the complex situation. Therefore, economic & social unrest were allowed to culminate into a major political crisis which became a prelude to the revolution.
• • The suffering of people increased enormously because the aristocracy started misusing authority of state for their own benefit.
  • ◦ E.g the judicial/legal system in France was arbitrary and the concept of rule of law was absent. The word of the king was the law of the land. The worst feature was the instrument of ‘letters de cachet’.

It was this accumulated discontent among the masses that came out in the form of massive revolution in 1789.

5. Immediate factor:

The French government had taken no interest in the advancement of economy.

• • There was no system of budget in French.
• • The tax system was unscientific and irrational because rich/privileged class was free from the burden of taxes while all the taxes were paid by commoners.
• • The French participation of American war of Independence ruined the financial health completely because an amount on this war.

Thus, the first problem before the French monarchy was to overcome the financial crisis.

• • Louis XVI appointed a number of capable ministers such as Turgot (1774-76), Necker (1776-81), Cologne (1783-87) Brienne (1787-88) but they were dismissed one after the other when they suggested the imposition of taxes on privileged class. Thus, the economic bankruptcy of the French government and its desperate attempt to find a solution led to the summoning of the Estate General, which had remained in the state of animated suspension for the last 175 years.
• • The news of the meeting of the ‘Estates General’ made excited all the sections of French society. The decision to convene the Estate General was welcomed by all the three Estates. They considered it as a panacea for all the problems.
  • ◦ The privileged class saw it as a means to reassert its power and privileges.
  • ◦ The bourgeoisie saw it as an opportunity for fundamental constitutional reforms, which would enable the bourgeoisie to exert more control over the political institutions and to redesign the economic structure by changing the taxation norms.
  • ◦ For peasantry it was a means by which the unequal distribution of taxation would be remedied.
• • The Estates-General were summoned by a royal edict dated to 24 January 1789.
  • ◦ The summoning of Estate General under the combined pressure of the Estates was taken as the collapse of monarchy.
  • ◦ Finally, in May 1789 the session of the Estates General started. It meant that the monarchy had surrendered.
  • ◦ It was in Estate General on the issue of Voting that the differences among different classes took the form of a political crisis.
  • ◦ Finally, the representatives of the third estate boycotted the session and moved to Tennis Court Assembly in nearby region. It is here they were joined by artisans of Paris and peasants of France popularly known as ‘Mob of Paris’. Thus, started the revolution.

From the Estates-General to National Assembly

• • Voting Procedure
  • ◦ Such a session had taken place 175 years ago, so there was no latest tradition.
  • ◦ Earlier tradition: Three Estates to meet in three different chambers - each to vote separately. The value of each Estate was similar. Thus, Nobles and Clergy could together outvote the Commons by 2 to 1. This issue was widely discussed in the press during the autumn of 1788.
  • ◦ As the press began to demand that the Commons be allocated more delegates, to bolster his failing popularity, the King acceded to this measure of “doubling the Third.” He was confident of his influence over the Nobility and Clergy.
• • Elections during early 1789
  • ◦ Total elected delegates: 1,200 (about 300+300+600)
  • ◦ French society had changed since 1614, and these Estates-General were not identical to those of 1614.
  • ◦ Many nobles were elected to the Third Estate. The total number of nobles in the three Estates was about 400. Noble representatives of the Third Estate were among the most passionate revolutionaries in attendance, including Jean Joseph Mounier and the Comte de Mirabeau.
  • ◦ Some clergy were also elected as Third Estate delegates, most notably the Abbé Sieyès.
• • King’s Miscalculation:
  • ◦ Aristocracy: The Nobles in the Second Estate were the richest and most powerful in the kingdom. The King thought he could count on them. However, since the aristocracy was vociferously against monarchy, the first salvo came from aristocracy only.
  • ◦ Clergy: The king also expected that the First Estate would be predominantly the noble Bishops. The electorate, however, returned mainly parish priests, most of whom were sympathetic to the Commons.
  • ◦ Third Estate elections returned predominantly magistrates and lawyers.
    • ■ As the session started inside the palace of Versailles, on 5th May 1789, the common people of lower class were not allowed to go there. Thus, only middle classes could go and join.
    • ■ So, the middle class represented both itself and lower class.
• • Opening of the Estates-General (5th May)
  • ◦ Differences on the issue of Voting led to a political crisis.
    • ■ On 6th May, the Third Estate discovered that the royal decree, despite granting double representation, upheld the traditional voting “by orders”.
    • ■ The Third Estate wanted the estates to meet as one body and for each delegate to have one vote.
  • ◦ Suspicion
    • ■ The representative of 3rd Estate came to attend the session of Estate general with great enthusiasm. They brought the letter of Grievances (Cahiers) but the moment the session of Estate general commenced their hopes got shattered because the Privileged class wanted to prevent them.
    • ■ The realization of the anti-people nature of functioning propelled the representatives of 3rd Estate to demand the joint sitting of Parliament.
    • ■ This demand was rejected by the king and the representative of the privileged class.
• • National Constituent Assembly
  • ◦ On 13th June, Third Estate resolved to examine and settle the powers of the three orders.
    • ■ They declared themselves redefined as the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates, but of the people.
    • ■ They invited the other orders to join them but made it clear that they intended to conduct the nation’s affairs with or without them.
  • ◦ The King attempted to resist this reorganization of the Estates-General.
    • ■ On 20th June, he ordered the hall where the National Assembly met to be closed, and entry to the Third Estate was disallowed. The Assembly then went out, taking their deliberations to the nearby tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the ‘Tennis Court Oath’, agreeing not to disband until they had settled the constitution of France.
    • ■ The monarch now sent army to vacate the Tennis Court.
      • ■ In the meantime, the news of all this tug-of-war broke out. Artisans and peasants (mob of Paris - Sans-culottes) surrounded them and thus police/army didn’t dare to crush them with iron hand. Brutal step couldn’t have been taken by them. Middle class leadership was saved by the active role of the lower class. Thus, started the revolution.
      • ■ Failing to disperse the delegates, Louis reluctantly recognized their validity on 27 June.
    • ■ Now, those representatives of the nobility who still stood apart also joined the National Assembly. The Estates-General had ceased to exist, having become the National Assembly.
      • ■ The Assembly renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July and began to function as a governing body and a constitution-drafter.

UPSC CSE PYQs – French Revolution

Causes: Philosophers’ role?

• • “The writings of the philosophers had a tremendous influence on the minds of the people and created a revolutionary awakening in their minds and formed the intellectual creed of the French Revolution.” Comment. [1983, 20m]
• • “What mattered in 1789 - and what made men revolutionary almost in spite of themselves - was the whole ‘revolutionary situation’; and in producing that situation the work of the philosophers played no very important role.” Comment. [1985, 20m]
• • “French political writers of the eighteenth century were influenced by Locke and also by the curious contrasts which they perceived between the government of his country and their own.” Comment. [1991, 20m]
• • “If monarchical misrule ignited the French revolution, lofty ideas both inspired and sustained it.” Comment. [1997, 20m]
• • “If monarchical misrule ignited the French Revolution, lofty ideas both inspired and sustained it.” Comment. [2002, 20m]
• • “The writings of the philosophers had a tremendous influence on the minds of the people and created a revolutionary awakening in their minds and formed the intellectual creed of the French Revolution.” Comment. [2005, 20m]
• • “No event as encompassing as the French Revolution occurs in an intellectual vacuum.” Comment. [2007, 20m]
• • “The connection between the philosophers’ ideas and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) is somewhat remote and indirect.” Critically evaluate. [2012, 10m]
• • Critically examine the statement that the French Revolution was not caused by the French philosophers but by the conditions of national life and by the mistakes of the government. [2016, 20m]

Causes: Other factors?

• • What were the ideals of the French Revolution of 1789? How far is it correct to say that it overthrew mercantilism and the surviving relics of feudalism and contributed to the political supremacy of the middle class? [1979, 60m]
• • “To some extent, the American War of Independence inspired the French Revolution.” Comment. [1999, 20m]
• • “The multiple contradictions that quickly undermined the new edifice had been expressed even before the meeting of the Estate General in France. The internal conflict among Estates had manifested itself.” Critically examine. [2015, 10m]
• • “The causes of the French Revolution of 1789 included both long term and structural factors, as well as more immediate events.” Critically examine. [2020, 10m]

Objectives and achievements

• • The French Revolution (1789) sought to remove both “the religious and secular props of the existing social order.” Elucidate. [1996, 20m]
• • “The French Revolution attacked privileges and not property.” Comment. [2003, 20m]
• • The French Revolution (1789) really achieved far less than what it intended to effect. Do you agree? [1989, 20m]
• • “The Declaration of Rights was the death-warrant of the system of privilege, and so of the ancient regime … Yet in the history of ideas it belonged rather to the past than to the future.” Examine. [2014, 20m]

Handout 11: French Revolution 2 – First Phase: The Phase of Constitutional Monarchy (1789-92)

(A) Fiscal Crisis (Immediate Cause): Aristocratic Revolution and Calling of Estates-General

The French government had taken no interest in the advancement of economy.

• • There was no system of budget in French.
• • The tax system was unscientific and irrational because rich/privileged class was free from the burden of taxes while all the taxes were paid by commoners.

The problem before the French monarchy was to overcome the financial crisis.

• • Louis XIV: He fought 4 extravagant wars + Built the palace of Versailles.
• • Louis XV: Seven Years’ War because of rivalry with Britain: very costly and burdensome.
• • Louis XVI: The French participation of American war of Independence ruined the financial health completely.
  • ◦ He appointed a number of capable ministers such as Turgot (1774-76), Necker (1776-81), Cologne (1783-87) Brienne (1787-88) but they were dismissed one after the other when they suggested the imposition of taxes on privileged class.
  • ◦ Lefebvre: the French Revolution was started and laid to victory in its first phase by the aristocracy.
    • ■ In the mid-1780s, the government realized that without tax reforms, the fiscal crisis could not be solved, the various reform proposals of the ministers encountered the opposition of both Estates and the aristocrats to the lead in this.
• • Thus, the economic bankruptcy of the French government and its desperate attempt to find a solution led to the summoning of the Estate General, which had remained in the state of animated suspension for the last 175 years.
• • The news of the meeting of the ‘Estates General’ made excited all the sections of French society. The decision to convene the Estate General was welcomed by all the three Estates. They considered it as a panacea for all the problems.
  • ◦ The privileged class saw it as a means to reassert its power and privileges.
  • ◦ The bourgeoisie saw it as an opportunity for fundamental constitutional reforms, which would enable the bourgeoisie to exert more control over the political institutions and to redesign the economic structure by changing the taxation norms.
  • ◦ For peasantry it was a means by which the unequal distribution of taxation would be remedied.

Aristocratic revolution ended with the summoning of the Estate General.

(B) Bourgeoise Revolution and formation of National Assembly

• • Elections during early 1789
  • ◦ “Doubling the Third”:
    • ■ As the press began to demand that the Commons be allocated more delegates, to bolster his failing popularity, the King (as per advice of Necker) acceded to this measure of doubling the Third.
    • ■ Total elected delegates: 1,200 (about 300+300+600)
  • ◦ French society had changed since 1614, and these Estates-General were not identical to those of 1614.
    • ■ Aristocracy:
      • ■ Members of the nobility were not required to stand for election to the Second Estate.
      • ■ Amongst the nobles, about 1/3rd of them were liberal minded.
    • ■ Clergy:
      • ■ The electorate returned mainly parish priests, most of whom were sympathetic to the Commons. (about 50%, who were originally from the Third Estate)
    • ■ Third Estate elections returned predominantly magistrates and lawyers.
      • ■ Amont the Third Estate representatives, there were men like Mounier, Barnave, Target, and even Robespierre.
      • ■ Many nobles were also elected to the Third Estate. The total number of nobles in the three Estates was about 400.
        • ■ Renegade nobles elected in Third Estate: Comte de Mirabeau and Lafayette.
      • ■ Some clergy were also elected as Third Estate delegates, most notably the Abbé Sieyès.
• • Opening of the Estates-General (5th May)
  • ◦ The representative of 3rd Estate came to attend the session of Estate general with great enthusiasm. They brought the letter of Grievances (Cahiers), but there was no indication of the joint session.
  • ◦ The king, after inaugural his address (On 6th May), left asking the orders to have their separate sessions. Despite granting double representation, traditional voting-by-orders was to continue.
  • ◦ The Third Estate wanted the estates to meet as one body and for each delegate to have one vote. They demanded a joint sitting like a Parliament. This demand was rejected by the king and the representative of the privileged class.
• • The stalemate continued for about a month.
• • The king then called the royal session on 22nd June but the deputies of the Third Estate came to the assembly on 20th June, only to find the doors of the hall closed. The King had ordered the hall to be closed to disallow their entry.
  • ◦ The Assembly then went out, taking their deliberations to the nearby indoor tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the ‘Tennis Court Oath’.
    • ■ The oath read “we will not disband until we have constructed a nation of individual Citizens instead of a kingdom of servile subjects”
    • ■ The oath was proposed by Jean Joseph Mounier. He said there is no going away, and the nation would remain united so long as the Estate General was not reorganized as National Assembly.
  • ◦ Thus,
    • ■ They declared/redefined themselves as the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates, but of the people.
    • ■ They invited the other orders to join them but made it clear that they intended to conduct the nation’s affairs with or without them.
• • The monarch now sent the army to vacate the Tennis Court.
• • However, in the meantime, the news of all this tug-of-war broke out. Artisans and peasants (mob of Paris - Sans-culottes) surrounded them and thus police/army didn’t dare to crush them with iron hand.
  • ◦ Middle class leadership was saved by the active role of the lower class.
• • Failing to disperse the delegates, Louis reluctantly recognized their validity on 27 June.
• • The Estates-General had ceased to exist, having become the National Assembly.
  • ◦ Now, some of those representatives of the nobility, who had still stood apart, also joined the National Assembly. However, the majority remained to be bourgeoise in nature.
  • ◦ The Assembly renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly on 9th July and began to function as a governing body and a constitution-drafter.

(C) Popular Revolution and Fall of Bastille (14th July 1789)

• • Soon, the king asked the army to parade the streets of Paris and Versailles.
  • ◦ This was seen as a direct affront by the Third Estate. Bourgeois revolution, which had won when the Estates-General was converted into the national assembly, seemed lost when the king decided to have recourse to army.
• • It produced a revolutionary mentality. (Lefebvre)
  • ◦ This mentality of insurrection had two aspects: Great hope and Great fear.
  • ◦ Great hope was the expectation of quick reforms from the Estates-general.
  • ◦ When there were difficulties, people became impatient, and this hope was turned into a fear.
    • ■ Already, the lack of food supplies had infuriated towns/provinces.
    • ■ There were rumours of aristocratic conspiracy going around. That the aristocrats and monarch were trying to bring in brigands from outside, collaborate with foreign powers to destroy the people’s initiative and overthrow the Third Estate.
• • Fall of Bastille
  • ◦ The people took to the streets of Paris. When the army finally started parading the streets on 14th of July, there was a great assembly and popular violence.
  • ◦ This violence was their response to the Kings resorting to arms. A monastery at Saint Lazare was looted, gun shops and arsenals were looted and then they were marching towards the Bastille fort, which was now a prison.
    • ■ Although there were only 7 prisoners at the time, it was the symbol of the absolutist character of the government.
    • ■ The aim was not to free prisoners when they were very few, but the problem was that they wanted to take the arms and ammunition stored there.
  • ◦ Significance: The fall of the Bastille had a tremendous impact on the attitude of the people.
    • ■ The ‘public’ had drawn first blood. It marked the success of armed uprising.
    • ■ The king was obliged to accept this as a revolution.
    • ■ It symbolized the decline of the autocratic nature of the monarchy.
    • ■ All press censorship was lifted in its wake.
    • ■ It was the emblem of the old regime, and its fall signified the fall of the Ancien Regime
    • ■ In the countryside, peasants took over cheataux and destroyed aristocratic titles to Land. Opened the door for the Great Fear.

(D) Peasant Revolution (Great Fear, July-August)

• • The fall of Bastille also had its impact on the countryside (provinces), where peasants had been greatly influenced by rumours.
  • ◦ There was a rumor that the wandering vagrants are nothing but the brigands that the aristocrats had recruited to unleash them on the peasants.
• • So, in the provinces, there was a whole series of peasant uprisings against the lord.
  • ◦ The nobles and the bourgeois now took fright.
  • ◦ Their attack was on manorial rights. They attacked the manor houses; they destroyed whatever document there had been
• • The King now had no option but to allow the National Assembly to properly meet draft a new constitution and decide the fate of France. The King retired to Versailles.

Work of the National Constituent Assembly (1789-91)

(a) End of feudalism in France (4th August, 1789)

On the night of the 4th of August 1789, a set of 19 articles were passed by the National Constituent Assembly which abolished feudalism in France and ended the tax exemptions as well as privileges of the upper classes. Thus, the institutional and practices of old regime were wiped out.

• • The principle of equality was declared as the basis of state and society.
  • ◦ Established fiscal equality.
  • ◦ Equality of rights, freedom from arbitrary arrests and freedom of expression etc.
  • ◦ Subjects of the king were transformed into citizen of France.
• • Seigneurial rights and manorialism were abolished
  • ◦ Hunting, gifts, corvee of the Second Estate (the nobility)
  • ◦ tithe gathered by the First Estate (the Catholic clergy)
• • Guilds were destroyed. All economic activities were thrown open to every Frenchman.
• • The old judicial system, founded on the 13 regional parlements was also abolished.

Thus, both economic and social privileges were abolished. This was the middle-class triumph. These resolutions destroyed the old France gave birth to a new France. That is why, it is commented that,

• • On 4th August 1789 the France mentioned in history disappeared and a new democratic France emerged.
• • On the night of 4th August, the old France went to bed but next morning, a new France woke up.
• • 14th of July ended the political regime of Bourbons, while the decrees of the night of 4th of August ended the social and administrative base of the regime.
• • The revolution went through the stages, started by the aristocracy but finally the aristocracy was to find a common grave as it were with the monarchy.

5th August – after wiping out the old France the new Assembly dedicated itself to the tank of making of new constitution. In fact, on 9th July itself, the National Assembly had announced the formation of the constituent Assembly.

(b) Replacing the Ancien Regime with Modern system

Declaration of the Rights of Men & Citizen (26th August 1789):
(Death Warrant of the Old Regime – Lefebvre)

• • It consisted of 17 articles and served as the preamble to the French Constitution of 1791.
• • It was drafted by Abbe Sieyes and Marquis de Lafayette, in consultation with Jefferson.
• • It was a noble document on which the French Revolution and the working of the Constitution were to be based.
• • Clearly inspired by the Enlightenment Age principles.
• • A number of rights were enshrined in this declaration like
  • ◦ Right to life
  • ◦ Every person is born with certain natural rights. It is the duty of the state to protect these rights of citizens.
  • ◦ Liberty:
    • ■ Every citizen is free to practice and propagate any religion within the limits prescribed by the law.
    • ■ Freedom from arbitrary arrest.
      • ■ An individual must be safeguarded against arbitrary police or judicial action.
      • ■ No person shall be accused, arrested or imprisoned except in accordance with the law.
    • ■ Freedom of expression and press
    • ■ Right to own property (described as sacred, inalienable, and inviolable)
  • ◦ Equality:
    • ■ Equality before law
    • ■ Right to acquire government ranks in accordance with their merit.
  • ◦ Separation of powers
  • ◦ Law to be enacted by elected assembly.
  • ◦ Law to be expression of general will.
  • ◦ Sovereignty to reside in nation.

An entire new basis was created or for the restructuring of France politically, legally and constitutionally. The Declaration served as an affirmation of the core values of the French Revolution and had a major impact on the development of liberty and democracy in Europe and across the world.

Analytical Perspective

Positive side:

• • It was unique as it was theoretically guided by Rousseau’s concept of ‘General Will’.
• • Some essential rights for a citizen such as rule of law, right to property, right to safety from arbitrary imprisonment, etc.
• • It reflected the principles which became the basis for the future government of France.
  • ◦ The future constitution in France tried to conform to it in spirit.
• • It became a charter of freedom for liberals of 19th c. Europe. It was not only in the context of France but rather of the entire world. It talked about the whole of humanity.

Limitations:

• • Favoured middle class:
  • ◦ The enshrined rights reflected the interest of the middle class. That’s why the right to property, freedom of thought and expression, freedom of religion etc. were accepted but not right to work, right to assembly and right to food, which could have benefited the lower class. It was limited to the right to form organization.
• • The Declaration was indeed a watershed moment in the history of human rights, going further in scope than most of the similar documents that came before. Yet, at the time of its framing, active citizenship was only granted to male property owners over the age of 25 who paid their taxes. This amounted to roughly 20% of the population. Women, slaves, and foreigners were thereby omitted from the democratic process.
  • ◦ Women
    • ■ Frustration that women’s rights were not considered led the playwright Olympe de Gouges to pen the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen (1791), stating explicitly women’s equality with men. She sought to expose the failure of the Revolution to live up to its promises of equality.
    • ■ Mary Wollstonecraft (English journalist) witnessed the revolution first-hand by going to Paris. She defended the quote “rights of man” in a 1791 book and in 1792 she published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
  • ◦ It failed to end slavery.
    • ■ Although the Declaration did not mention slavery, its principles inspired slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) to rise, thus leading to the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804).
  • ◦ Workers
    • ■ When inspired workers started to form their association, they were prohibited to do so. So, the declaration was more abstract than real for them.

Because of these limitations, it appears that the declaration of rights was drawing inspiration more from past than future.

Conclusion:

• • Despite its shortcomings, it was one of the most significant and enduring achievements of the French Revolution.
• • Even the limited aims of the framers of the Declaration (especially Article 1) extended logically to mean political and even social democracy.
  • ◦ It was “the credo of the new age.” (19th-c historian Jules Michelet)

Women’s March (5 October 1789)

The king refused to sanction the August Decrees and Declaration both. There was still a fear and anxiety among the people that the king and the aristocrats were continuing their conspiracy to defeat the revolution.

The Parisians rose again and on October 5 marched to Versailles. There was a Women’s March on Versailles (one of the most significant events in FR) – Thousands of women march to Versailles, demanding bread, and the return of the royal family to Paris. The next day they brought the royal family back to Paris.

• • Significance
  • ◦ The march proved that the monarchy was subject to the will of the people. It also gave the revolutionaries confidence in the power of the people over the king. It stripped the king of much of his remaining independence and authority.
  • ◦ As a result of the march, the monarchist faction in the Assembly effectively lost its significance.
  • ◦ So, for many scholars, FR was not about high Enlightenment ideas but about primarily economic hardship.
  • ◦ Louis attempted to work within the framework of his limited powers after the women’s march but won little support, and he and the royal family remained virtual prisoners in the Tuileries.
  • ◦ Desperate, he made his abortive flight to Varennes in June 1791. Attempting to escape and join with royalist armies, the king was once again captured by a mixture of citizens and national guardsmen who hauled him back to Paris.
  • ◦ Now the aristocrats began to flee the country.

(c) Administrative Re-organization (Decree of 22 December 1789)

• • The complicated administrative system of the ancien régime was swept away. The old feudal system was replaced with a more centralized and rational system of governance.
• • The anarchy was sought to be ended by reconstituting France
  • ◦ Creation of 83 departments (new provinces).
  • ◦ System of intendants was abolished.
  • ◦ General Council and Executive Council etc were created.
  • ◦ Departments → Districts → Cantons
  • ◦ Municipal government was in the hands of the communes, who were elected.
  • ◦ So, there was decentralization of power.
• • Judicial principles were radically changed.
  • ◦ No longer arbitrary arrest of people
  • ◦ People have the right to defend themselves.
  • ◦ Significantly, the judges were to be elected.
  • ◦ Justice of peace in every Canton, appeal courts at national level.

(d) Economy

• • Nationalization of Church Property (Nov 1789)
  • ◦ It nationalized the lands of the Roman Catholic Church in France to pay off the public debt.
  • ◦ Also, against this Church property, the assembly decided to issue Assignant (paper currency).
• • The Assembly preferred free trade and removal of control.
  • ◦ The toll barriers were removed. The grain trade was freed. This all helped bourgeoise.

(e) Church: Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790)

(to restructuring the relationship between the church and the state)

• • Separated the church of France from the Papacy. It was to democratize religion and disown the connection of Pope.
  • ◦ No longer 135 Bishops but 83, corresponding 83 departments. There would be no archbishop.
  • ◦ Election of bishops and parish priests by the people, rather than their appointment by the Pope.
  • ◦ State would have control over appointment and dismissal of clergy.
  • ◦ Anointment of provincial bishops by the bishops in capital and likewise.
  • ◦ Salaries would be paid by the government.
  • ◦ Clergy to take oath of loyalty as witnesses to the new constitution.
    • ■ It led to deep internal division among the French clergy.
• • It virtually made the Church a department of the government. It was rejected by Pope Pius VI.

(f) The Constitution (Sept 1791)

• • Constitution-making took two years since the Declaration.
• • Not a republic but a constitutional monarchy.
  • ◦ Change in King’s title: Louis, by the grace of God, King of France and Navarre → Louis, by the grace of God and the constitutional will of the people, the king of the French.
  • ◦ King was not the King of territory but the a king of a people.
  • ◦ The king retained substantial executive authority but in reality, most of his orders had to be counter-signed by a minister who was sort of responsible to the assembly.
• • Legislative assembly
  • ◦ The Montesquieuean concept of separation of power introduced.
  • ◦ It introduced a unicameral legislative assembly (or National Assembly) with limited powers to make laws and levy taxes.
  • ◦ Provision for limited franchise, based on property, suited the interest of the middle class. There was a clear distinction was made between active and inactive citizens of France.
    • ■ Active citizens (with property) – given franchise.
    • ■ Passive citizens (didn’t have property)
  • ◦ These 4.3 m people (Primary level) would select about 50,000 electors (Secondary level), who would in turn elect the deputies (members of the assembly)
  • ◦ Women had no right to vote.
• • It guaranteed basic civil liberties such as freedom of speech, press, and religion.
• • In this constitution, the hegemony of the middle class was present. The influence of the middle class could be seen on this new constitution. This is the reason why political balance and social harmony were emphasized in this constitution.

Thus, the National Constituent Assembly completed the abolition of feudalism, suppressed the old orders, established civil equality among men and made more than half the adult male population eligible to vote. What is significant is that career was open to talent, it marked very definitely the end of the special privileges which the upper orders enjoyed earlier. It ended the old France. It was given a new legal, administrative and social basis.

Finally, in September, the Constitution was formally accepted by King Louis XVI and the National Constituent Assembly officially dissolved, and the Legislative Assembly takes its place.

Handout 12: French Revolution — Second and Third Phase (1792-99)

Legislative Assembly

On the basis of the Constitution of 1791, there was the formation of unicameral legislation after the election in 1791.

• • The assembly, thus formed, was divided into two groups: Rightist (Pro-monarchial elements, royalists) & Leftist (Radical members).
  • ◦ Radicals wanted to completely abolish the monarchy and establish republican government while the rightist wanted to restore the tradition and old order.
  • ◦ Radicals:
    • ■ Middle class was represented by Girondists, relatively less radicals.
    • ■ Lower class was represented by Mountain (petty merchants, shop keepers, dockyard workers etc.) – highly radical.
    • ■ Plains – in between. They occupied centrist position.

French Revolutionary War

While the Constituent Assembly was in session, a few disturbing trends could be seen:

• • Fear of Counter-Revolution: The revolutionaries in France were concerned about the possibility of foreign intervention aimed at restoring the French monarchy.
  • ◦ Flight to Varennes (June 1791)
    • ■ Louis XVI’s failed attempt to flee to Varennes. It raised suspicions that foreign powers might be conspiring with the French royal family.
  • ◦ The Declaration of Pillnitz in mid-1791
    • ■ If there was any attempt on the life of the king, the European powers would form a coalition and intervene in France.
    • ■ It was clearly seen as a signal for a possible invasion of France by the monarch occult powers of Europe.
  • ◦ Many émigrés formed armed groups close to the NE frontier of France and sought help from the rulers of Europe.
    • ■ It was widely suspected that they were conspiring with the aide of the possible upsurge of the counter-revolutionary emotions in France.
  • ◦ When the National Constituent Assembly proclaimed a revolutionary principle of the right of self-determination, it gave new hope to the revolutionaries across Europe, the rulers in various countries began to worry when.
  • ◦ Brunswick Manifesto (July 1792)
    • ■ The Duke of Brunswick, commanding general of the Austro–Prussian Army, threatened the destruction of Paris should any harm come to King Louis XVI of France.

The French Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria in April 1792. It marked the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, which would eventually involve many European powers and have profound consequences for both France and Europe as a whole.

Fall of Monarchy

Domestic Developments:

• • The fear of conspiracy of the émigré nobility and the monarchical powers (that counter-revolution threatened the revolution) gradually led to radicalization of politics.
• • Formation of Paris Commune
  • ◦ The radical sections of Paris got together at the hotel de Ville of that townhall and decided to create the revolutionary commune that was the municipal government of Paris. The assembly was forced to recognize it.
• • The economic crisis continued. It gradually worsened.
• • King’s attempt to flight. He tried to leave France was caught with his family at Verennes and was brought back.
• • The war was continuing.
  • ◦ It had started well for France, but very soon it started going against France.
  • ◦ It deepened the passion and sense of urgency among the various factions. There was a widespread belief that they had been betrayed by the monarchy.

This exacerbated France’s domestic political turmoil. Due to public violence and the political instability, there was political breakdown.

• • August Insurrection (1792):
  • ◦ Now, people decided to act once more. There was an insurrection on 10th August. People attacked Tuileries Palace, where the King lived. 600 royal guards were killed. The king left the palace and took refuge in the assembly chamber. The assembly decided to suspend the King for the moment.
• • September Massacres (1792):
  • ◦ In September, the Parisian crowd broke into the prisons and massacred the nobles and clergy held there.

Radicalization inside the Assembly:

It was now decided to overthrow the monarchy and to establish a republic in France.

• • A new assembly would be elected and known as the National Convention.
  • ◦ It would be elected on the basis of Universal Adult Male Suffrage.
• • On 22nd September, the monarchy finale came to an end. France became a republic. It marked the beginning of the new calendar, year one of the republic.
• • Apart from the abolition of the French monarchy, they assembly gave call for every other kingdom to do the same: “All governments are our enemies, all people our friends,” the Edict of Fraternity. (Dec 1792)

What started as a movement not against the monarchy, now consumed the monarchy, as the revolutionary ideas and revolutionary enthusiasm propelled the revolution to earth a Republican solution. With the fall of the monarchy, the revolution entered a new phase. It was still at war with Europe which had to be fought, but for that, the revolution would now be more successfully organized.

Second Phase: The phase of Radical Republicanism (1792-94)

Formation of the National Convention:

• • Formation of Republic:
  • ◦ The radical members prevailed in the new Convention. So, it abolished the monarchy and declared the France as a Republic on 25th Sept 1792.
• • Regicide:
  • ◦ With further reverses on war front, Louis XVI was condemned to death for treason by the Convention and executed on January 21, 1793; Marie-Antoinette was guillotined nine months later.
• • Internal Division and the failure of Girondin ministry
  • ◦ Internal Division:
    • ■ According to Girondists, now the objective of the revolution was accomplished, so it was the time of consolidation domestically. The goal of the people’s war has been achieved.
    • ■ Jacobins, led by Maximilien Robespierre, wanted to give the lower classes a greater share in political and economic power.
  • ◦ Internal Crisis: Economic crisis continued. The bread was not only dear, but it was also becoming scarce.
  • ◦ External Crisis: Meanwhile, the war started to bad once again for France.
  • ◦ It is in this context, the people of France preferred almost emergency kind of government. But the weakness of the Girondist ministry compounded the problem.
• • The Jacobins took advantage of this and seized power. (Fall of Girondists)
  • ◦ Girondin leaders were dragged out from the National Convention by the crowd of 20,000 Jacobin supporters and killed in broad daylight. Thus, Jacobins seized power in June 1793.
• • Thus, by July, there was the beginning of the Reign of Terror (July 1793-July 1794). With this, French Revolution turned bloody and violent.
  • ◦ Now for time being, Revolution slipped out of the hands of middle class and hijacked by the lower class. It even has tarnished its own image in the eyes of other Europeans.
  • ◦ It was an emergency form of government, when terror was used as instrument of enforcement of certain policies, and particularly to eliminate ‘enemies of revolution’.
• • Instruments of the government
  • ◦ Committee of Public Safety:
    • ■ It was charged with protecting the new republic against its foreign enemies (First Coalition) and domestic enemies (emigres).
    • ■ As a war-time measure, it was given broad supervisory powers over the army, judiciary, and legislature. (Concentration of executive authority)
  • ◦ Deputies/representatives sent to the army to bring it under political control.
  • ◦ Deputies were also sent to provinces to gather support for this more radical form of government.
  • ◦ Revolutionary Tribunal: for trial of political offenders and enemies of revolutionaries.
  • ◦ Law of Suspect defined suspects and authorized their elimination. It gave greater power of surveillance.
  • ◦ Law of the Maximum was the most important one. It decided the maximum price of the bread and certain other commodities. Very soon, Law of Minimum to decide minimum wages. Thus, there was a movement towards a more controlled economy.
• • Robespierre soon eliminated the other leaders (Dante, Herbert etc) and established a one-man dictatorship.

Assessment of Jacobin Government in National Convention

With the king dead and the church legally abandoned, the Jacobins under Robespierre’s leadership, committed the nation to a so-called reign of virtue and complete obedience to Rousseau’s idea of the general will of the people—despite all those freedoms agreed upon in the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

The Second Constitution of 1793 (June 1793)

It abolished the monarchy and established a democratic republic.

• • It gave universal suffrage to all men over the age of 21 who could read and write.
• • It established the National Convention as the legislative body, which had unlimited powers to make laws and levy taxes.
• • It guaranteed several social and economic rights, such as the right to work, education, and public assistance.

• • Positive contribution:
  • ◦ The objective of the Revolution was clearly defined.
    • ■ It was not just the overthrow of monarchy and destruction of old order in France. Rather the spread of revolution among the san-culottes and peasants, and also other parts of Europe who were under the same tyranny.
  • ◦ Converted France into a republic:
    • ■ Ordered the confiscation and sale of the property of émigrés.
    • ■ Supported democratic ideas by introducing the universal adult male franchise.
    • ■ Churches were shut down and its buildings were being used as barracks and offices.
    • ■ Decimal system and new calendar were adopted.
  • ◦ Encouraged welfarist ideas:
    • ■ Ensuring ‘right to work’ and ‘right to food’.
    • ■ To control food riots and mass hunger in the cities: Introduced the Maximum (government control of prices), rationing of meat and bread etc.
    • ■ Taxed the rich
    • ■ Brought national assistance to the poor and to the disabled (due to war)
    • ■ Abolished slavery and slave trade.
    • ■ Declared that education should be free and compulsory.
  • ◦ The system of military conscription was introduced, which was instrumental behind the military success of France.
  • ◦ Culture
    • ■ Changing everything. Not only government but entire Society. Names of street, measurement system, time (hour of 100 units).. everything.
    • ■ A new rational calendar was created.
    • ■ The Jacobins transformed culture: festivals celebrated patriotic virtue; churches were turned into temples of reason; dishware carried patriotic mottos; and clothing was in red, white, and blue—the colors of the revolutionary flag.
    • ■ Louvre museum was opened in August 1792.
• • Terror:
  • ◦ These exceptional measures provoked violent reactions. Opposition to it was broken by the Reign of Terror.
    • ■ “The basis of popular government in time of revolution is both virtue and terror. Terror without virtue is dangerous, virtue without terror is powerless. Terror is nothing else than swift, severe, indomitable justice – it flows, then, from virtue.” Robespierre
  • ◦ Political Terror:
    • ■ Violence, which was earlier considered the natural outrage of a frustrated mob, was now given a legitimate and institutional basis. Terror was bureaucratized. (Public Safety Committee, Revolutionary Tribunal, Law of suspects and Guillotine etc.)
    • ■ It arrested of at least 300,000 suspects, 17,000 of whom were sentenced to death on guillotine and executed while more died in prisons or were killed without any form of trial. (estimated total about 40,000 died)
    • ■ It gave a cruel face to the revolution, and then the revolution started to devour its own children.
  • ◦ Economic Terror:
    • ■ Attempt to control the economy was inimical to the interest of upper bourgeoise.
    • ■ Created Revolutionary Armies, around 22,000 of them across France, to find out economic offenders (hoarding, black marketing, profiteering)
    • ■ They also wanted death penalty for hoarders and black marketeers
  • ◦ Religious Terror:
    • ■ Attack on Christianity – either de-Christianization movement, new secular festivals were created and made mandatory.
    • ■ The Bishop of Paris was forced to resign. In Notre Dame, y celebrated the festival of reason. It was converted into a Temple of Reason.
    • ■ Later, Robespierre introduced the worship of Supreme Being.

End of the Reign of Terror: (Thermidorian Reaction)

But as French soldiers began to win their wars abroad, people became tired of excessive revolutionary bloodshed and mounted opposition. Victory in the War made the Terror, and the economic and social restrictions seem pointless. In the end, there was a fierce reaction against this rule of Robespierre. Robespierre was overthrown on 9 Thermidor, year II (July 27, 1794), and executed the following day.

Now, the red terror of the Jacobins was replaced with the white terror of the Thermidorian reaction. Thus, terror didn’t end but the Jacobin terror ended on 27th of July.

Not only right (middle class and aristocratic elements) but also left (lower class, as his govt was scourge to French people) combined to demolish his government. It was not just the overthrow of a few persons but rejection of a system of government. Soon after his fall, the Maximum was abolished, the social laws were no longer applied, and efforts toward economic equality were abandoned.

Final Word: It was a broken dream. It was an attempt to create a democracy, but it didn’t succeed. However, the failure was not the last word, the dream would be realized much later. Terror notwithstanding, there was a positive side to the revolutionary government.

The Third Phase: Liberal Republicanism (1795-1799)

(The Age of Directory)

During the stage once again, the leadership came into the hands of the middle class. It became possible due to two factors:

• • At this turn of history, lower-class people were not so strongly organized.
• • Differences appeared between peasants & artisans w.r.t the rationing of grains.

Third Constitution (1795) (Constitution of Year 3)

Since the Second constitution had created Jacobin Terror, it was found to be unsuitable and was soon replaced by the Third constitution.

• • Bicameral legislation
  • ◦ Council of Ancients/Elders
  • ◦ Council of Five Hundred (1/3rd members retiring every year)
• • Executive power was vested in 5 directors. (Directory)
  • ◦ Earlier there were different committees in charge of executive power.
• • The two chambers as well as the five directors – all were elected by the people. But it limited suffrage to men who paid a certain level of taxes.
• • It curtailed some of the social and economic rights guaranteed by the previous constitution such as right to work and right to public assistance.

This government is known as the ‘Rule by Directory’.

Critical analysis:

• • Now, there was the return to the principles of 1789.
• • Jacobin sympathisers viewed the Directory as a betrayal of the Revolution.
• • The rule of Directory was also known as bourgeoisie republic.
• • They sought to neutralize the power of the popular movement.
  • ◦ In this government, the political parties were consciously discouraged.
  • ◦ White Terror was used to suppress the Red Terror.
  • ◦ It was the restoration of the property owners’ republic. Only about 40,000 people constituted the political nation.
  • ◦ Thus, it reflected a shift towards a more conservative and cautious approach to governance, following the excesses and upheavals of the preceding years.

Rule of Directory

According to David Thomson, the directory was ill fated from birth. It faced internal unrest, a weak economy, and an expensive war.

• • Directory followed the politics of balance. They wanted to restore the politics of the possessing classes. Thus, there was gradual exclusion of the people. It led to the popular discontent against the Directory.
• • There was administrative ineptitude, inefficiency, nepotism and increasing corruption which didn’t allow them to concentrate on solving the problem.
• • The war was still ongoing, which demanded their major attention.
  • ◦ The war also meant the continuous need for furnishing supplies. The currency had all but disappeared. The directory tried to reintroduce the metal currency and it was made possible because of certain conquests which were made during this period particularly the campaigns in Italy. Although the Directory repudiated most of the assignats and the debt, it failed to restore financial confidence or stability. But the price continued to rise.
  • ◦ The war soon certainly went in favour of France but it increased dependence of the Directory on the army.
• • There was a fear of both counter-revolution and increasing radicalism.
  • ◦ The elections which came increasingly every year, returned both loyalist deputies and Jacobin deputies in increasing numbers. So, the directory at a level was always waged between a Royalist fear and the fear of the Jacobins. It limited options of the Directory.

So, Directory failed to bring France out of the continuing chaos. It led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte during the Italian campaign, which brought the directory into some kind of semantic relationship with him. They would increasingly depend on Napoleon and on the generals, in a manner of speaking, in order to sustain themselves in power against series of coup d’etat.

• • Coup d’état Vendémiaire (Oct 1795): royalist uprising. Napoleon successfully suppressed it.
• • Conspiracy of Equals:
  • ◦ Gracchus Babeuf (1760-97) was a militant revolutionary of the earlier period. He wanted to stage another insurrection/revolution to capture power.
  • ◦ At a signal, there would be insurrection in different parts of France, and they would capture power. But this did not continue for a long time and the Directory get to know about the conspiracy and it was suppressed. The leaders were guillotined.
• • Coup d’état of 18 Fructidor (Sept 1797): In the 1797 elections, Royalists were on the verge of power. But the Directory managed the situation. Using the army of Napoleon, the election of 177 deputies was annulled, the royalists were deported, and the power was retained by the republicans.

It never had a strong base of popular support; when elections were held, most of its candidates were defeated. After 1797, Jacobin deputies returned in very large number to the Council of Five Hundreds. Without a majority in the legislature, the Directors relied on the army to enforce decrees, and extract revenue from conquered territories. Generals like Napoleon and Joubert were now central to the political process, while both the army and Directory became notorious for their corruption.

Fall of Directory

• • Background: There was increasing weakness of Directory in France.
  • ◦ It was inept and corrupt. The economic crisis continued, and the coffers of the state were empty. And there was a threat from royalists as well as Jacobins. This was the multi-faceted crisis.
  • ◦ Lefebvre has said that there was a need to close the revolution and preserve its gains. ‘Indeed, it was the inner necessity that drove the revolution to dictatorship, and not for the first time.’
  • ◦ Thus, the Directory collapsed because by 1799, many ‘preferred the uncertainties of authoritarian rule to the continuing ambiguities of parliamentary politics’.
  • ◦ The French people fed up the weak Directory rule. They wanted a strong regime to resolve their domestic issues as well as to protect French people from foreign powers. It was the discontent against the Directory coupled with the increasing importance of army which prepared the ground for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
  • ◦ ‘In what sort of state did I leave France and in what sort of state do I find it again? I left you peace, I find war. I left you conquests and the enemy is crossing our frontier. I left you our arsenals full, I do not find a single weapon. I left you the millions of Italy and I find spoliating laws and poverty everywhere.’ – Napoleon to a friend, while coming back from Egypt.
  • ◦ So, it was this inner necessity that drove Napoleon to take revolution, to find a strong man and a strong government there.

The Jacobins earlier wanted a democratic dictatorship. But what they got in 1799 was a bourgeoise dictatorship. But it was too late for them, and the resistance was almost impossible. It was now widely believed that Napoleon could be the saviour. To save France from the royalist threat, European invasion and Jacobin danger. He, in short, became the bulwark of the society.

Coup d’état of 18 Brumaire:

• • The architect of its end was Abbe Sieyès. Nominated to the Directory, his first action was to remove Barras, with the help of allies including Talleyrand, and Napoleon’s brother Lucien Bonaparte (President of the Council of 500).
• • On 9 November 1799, the Coup d’état of 18 Brumaire replaced the five Directors with the 3-member French Consulate, which consisted of three members, Napoleon, Sieyès, and Roger Ducos.
• • But it seemed there were not one but two coup d’etat in on 18 Brumaire 1799.
  • ◦ One that was devised by the politicians when they thought of using Napoleon to come to power.
  • ◦ But the second was executed by the Napoleon when he turned tables on the politicians of the directory and arrogated all power to himself.
• • In 1799 he became the first consul. The constitution was duly adopted, of the year 7.
  • ◦ All power in France passed into the hands of a 30 years old general, who was to control the destiny not only of France but virtually the whole of Europe for the next 15 years.

Tocqueville had long time back said that there were two ways in which the revolution could be brought to a close. A, through personal interest and B, through national glory and as he commented neither led to Liberty but both to Napoleon Bonaparte. Most historians consider this the end point of the French Revolution.

The significance of 18th Brumaire

Jean Tulard, a historian, has said that faced with internal and external danger the French bourgeoisie always succeeded in inventing a savior. In his book, The Myth of the Saviour, he suggests that Napoleon was a savior that the bourgeoise had invented to protect themselves against the two-pronged internal and external danger.

“Why did they want to do it? The sale of the confiscated property had helped the bourgeoise. Many upper and middle level of the bourgeoise had benefited from the revolution, by indulging in trade, in speculation, through the purchase of land. And they now wanted the revolution to be brought to a successful conclusion. It was an alliance between the bourgeoisie and a part of the peasantry. They could now do this around one man and around one principle. The principle was already known – the property. The man was now found – Napoleon.”

French Revolution — 4th Phase: Napoleon (1799-1814)

Why is Napoleon considered the child of the Revolution?

Napoleon was the child of revolution. He was product of the circumstances created by revolution. It was the revolution itself that prepared the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Without the positive transformations brought about by the French revolution of 1789 a commoner like Napoleon could have never achieved such phenomenal success.

• • The revolution overthrew the old regime based on class privileges, aristocratic values and feudal institutional. The revolution opened the gate for the rise of talent/merit.
  • ◦ A commoner like Napoleon could never have received a high military rank or dreamt of becoming head of state of France without it.
  • ◦ The revolution proclaimed the principle of equality as the basis of state and society. The class privileges were wiped out. Any Frenchmen irrespective of his social background could aspire for high offices under the state.
• • The French monarchy was abolished by revolution in 1792. The throne was empty after the regicide and discontinuation of hereditary monarchy. This empty throne could be filled by Napoleon to become the head of state.
• • The revolution provided an opportunity for Napoleon to capture the imagination of Frenchmen through his phenomenal success. In the in the absence of revolutionary wars, Napoleon would have never gained such popularity.
• • It was the ideals of the revolution which legitimized the position of Napoleon Bonaparte on many occasions.

Reasons for the Rise of Napoleon

• • Role of the revolution
  • ◦ Napoleon was the child of revolution. He was product of the circumstances created by revolution. (explained already)
• • Role of counter-revolution:
  • ◦ The revolution of 1789 destroyed the old regime successfully, but it failed to replace it with a new stable structure. The failure of various experiments pushed France into serious internal disorder.
  • ◦ The common Frenchmen were tired of the fluctuations in their fortune, economic instability and the extreme violence faced by France. By 1799, the people were strongly demanding peace and stability.
• • Role of Nationalism and French Revolutionary War
  • ◦ The phenomenal victories of Napoleon against the enemies of France satisfied the nationalist hunger for glory of common Frenchmen. These victories had captured the imagination of masses in France and the Frenchmen became the blind supporter of Napoleon.
• • Failure of Directory
  • ◦ The institution of directory was created in 1795 to eliminate the possibility of misuse of state authority by one individual but this institution proved to be completely ineffective & its polities pushed France into a bigger crisis, on both internal as well as external fronts.
  • ◦ Since the directory was bringing national shame and disgrace, when Napoleon threw it off, not a single Frenchmen shed tears.
• • Role of Napoleon's personality, talent and policies
  • ◦ His achievements were unparalleled. The reforms initiated by him in Italy during 1796–97 proved his administrative acumen. That is why, the people had started looking towards Napoleon to pull them out of the situation of disorder.
  • ◦ Napoleon was a common born person. He was a son of revolution. His rise as a head of the state was a guarantee of safety for the ideas of revolution.
  • ◦ Section-wise support:
    • ■ The nationalists supported Napoleon because he brought national glory.
    • ■ Common masses supported him because he was expected to secure the gains of revolution.
    • ■ The monarchists supported him because they were hopeful that only a strong personality like Napoleon could restore the monarchical system in France.
    • ■ The bourgeoisie supported Napoleon because his rise was the guarantee of peace and stability.
  • ◦ The massive support passed the way for the rise of Napoleon in 1799.

Napoleonic Reforms to consolidate the gains of Revolution

• • In the administrative field, he left the legacy of a visionary government.
  • ◦ Napoleon created a modern state system in France based on the ideas of equality, rule of law, secularism, merit, toleration & the doctrine of peaceful co-existence (fraternity)
  • ◦ There was resemblance with the Revolutionary era:
    • ■ Executive power:
      • ■ National Convention: Different committees.
      • ■ Directory: 5 directors
      • ■ Napoleon Bonaparte: 3 councils.
  • ◦ When Napoleon declared himself to be the first Consul for a lifetime or an emperor, he represented the French republic.
  • ◦ Creation of a system of merit-based promotion within the civil service.
  • ◦ Napoleon carried out centralization of administrative to counter the prevailing disorders and instability.
    • ■ Central secretariat was created by him to manage the administrative affairs.
    • ■ He appointed officers known as perfects and sub perfects at district level. They were responsible to central government.
• • Even in the economic field, Napoleon carried the legacy of the revolution.
  • ◦ National Convention had originally brought a plan for the survey of whole income in France. Later, it was implemented by Napoleon.
  • ◦ The land captured by peasants from feudal lords was recognized as their property.
  • ◦ The doctrine of Laissez Faire (Free Trade) was adopted.
  • ◦ Freedom of profession was granted to every French citizen.
  • ◦ The National Convention brought a plan for organizing exhibitions to promote industrialization. Napoleon also adopted this method.
    • ■ Machines were imported to commence the Industrial Revolution.
  • ◦ Directory had introduced metallic coins, which were continued by Napoleon. Bank of France was established in 1800.
• • Legal reforms
  • ◦ Napoleon created a modern judicial legal system in France in accordance with the ideas of the revolution. Rule of law was implemented without any discriminatory treatment on the basis of birth or any other criteria.
  • ◦ Napoleon codified the laws under Code Napoleon (1807)
    • ■ It replaced the patchwork of laws that had existed under the ancien régime.
    • ■ It codified many of the principles of the Revolution, such as equality before the law, the right to property, and religious toleration.
    • ■ It had separate provisions for civil and criminal matters. It was having a separate commercial court to deal with the economic offences.
    • ■ It was simple, liberal & progressive. It inspired and deeply influenced the judicial legal system all over the world.
• • In social field, Napoleon could maintain certain ideals of revolution.
  • ◦ He continued the abolition of feudalism & maintaining equality in society.
• • Religious Reforms
  • ◦ The French Revolution of 1789 attacked the institution of Church fiercely to wipe out its evils. Such acts of revolution were deeply resented by many Frenchmen who were committed Catholic.
  • ◦ In 1801, Napoleon entered a religious treaty with pope as Concordat (religious peace) that established the relation of state with church and satisfied the religious aspirations of Frenchmen.
  • ◦ As per the concordat,
    • ■ Roman Catholicism was recognized as the religion of majority of French people.
    • ■ Religious freedom was guaranteed to every Frenchmen including the atheist.
    • ■ The priest would be selected by the state and were to be invested by the Pope.
    • ■ The priests were too paid by state.
• • Establishment of a national education system.
  • ◦ Napoleon initiated several steps in the field of education so that thinking of Frenchmen can be regulated.
  • ◦ In 1802, a series of military style schools known as Lycee was created.
  • ◦ In 1808, French university system was established.
  • ◦ Ecole Polytechnique was established to produce engineers.
  • ◦ Teachers training institutes were established and only these teachers were appointed in schools.
  • ◦ The education of women was neglected by Napoleon.
• • Even outside of France, he was welcomed as crowned-Jacobian, as Napoleon projected himself as the representative of revolution.
  • ◦ The principles of liberty, equality, Fraternity, rule of law, toleration and laissez faire were implemented by Napoleon in Italy as well as in Germany.
  • ◦ He was welcomed as a liberator by common masses and because of this, his empire symbolized the extension of revolution beyond French borders.

By presenting himself as a leader who was carrying on the legacy of the Revolution, Napoleon was able to win the support of many French people who had been disillusioned by the chaos and violence of the revolutionary period. Although his autocratic rule and military conquests ultimately led to his downfall, the legacy of the Revolution continued to inspire political movements throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

Did Napoleon reverse some of the ideals of the revolution?

• • In political field
  • ◦ Napoleon put a check over liberty, one of the ideals of the revolution.
    • ■ Napoleon restored the monarchy in altered form and even tried to link his legacy to old Bourbon kings. He called Louis XIV 'mon-oncle' means my uncle.
    • ■ Political liberty was curtailed by him:
      • ■ More than 20 people could not gather without the permission of state.
      • ■ Anybody could be arrested on suspicion of indulging in Anti state activities.
      • ■ Political dissidents were prosecuted.
  • ◦ Although he permitted equality, for him the equality means equal opportunity for all but not economic equality of wealth
    • ■ Napoleon was product of equality. This was the most cherished ideal of FR but the institution of legion of honor created by him was against the principle of quality. This institution created a kind of semi-mobility in France.
    • ■ Napoleon proclaimed his faith in the principle of merit. He was the product of a system based on merit, but he dissolved this principle by appointing his brothers and other close relatives to high offices.
  • ◦ Napoleon proclaimed his faith in the ideal of fraternity, but his wars and battles were against this very ideal.
  • ◦ He also revived some of the unjust laws of old Bourbon kings in which there was a provision for arrest even without a warrant. (eg letters de cachet)
  • ◦ He put a check over the political parties and preferred to eliminate his enemies through his secret police. It became a very common feature among the future dictators.
  • ◦ He sidelined the legislative body and carried his works through plebiscite.
  • ◦ Democratic instruments like the plebiscite were used by Napoleon to strengthen but at the same time, he curbed the power and functions of elected bodies for effective control over administrative.
• • In the economic field
  • ◦ The emphasis of revolution had been on free trade but Napoleon always emphasized mercantilist policy. (eg. continental system)
  • ◦ Likewise, the revolution had emphasized the method of direct tax but Napoleon gave more emphasis on indirect tax.
    • ■ In 1804, he laid the foundation of an excise bureau.
• • In the social field
  • ◦ Napoleon's code was inspired by the Roman code of law in which female members were subordinated to the male members and the head of the family was enjoying too much power. So even these measures seemed counter to the basic ideals of the revolution.
  • ◦ Napoleon did nothing for the empowerment of women. He neglected their education.
• • Even outside of France, he represented rather the distorted ideas of the revolution.

How did Napoleon link old France to New France?

Napoleon certainly adopted some measures which could bring stability and prosperity in France. Even on the military front, France could get a better success but in this course, Napoleon changed the course of the revolution itself. Therefore, the role of Napoleon needs a rational and balanced evaluation.

• • On the one hand, Napoleon was a revolutionary figure who sought to break with the traditions and institutions of the ancien régime. On the other hand, he also recognized the need to maintain some continuity with the past in order to ensure stability and legitimacy for his regime.
  • ◦ The Old France meant pre-revolutionary France and New France meant the radical France of the post-revolutionary era.
• • On the one hand, he tried to maintain equality but put a certain check on liberty.
  • ◦ He put a check on liberty and even defined equality in a practical way as for him equality meant equal opportunity for all but not economic equality. So, even on the front of equality, he was a bit cautious as he promised to apply the equality of opportunity.
  • ◦ He maintained the limited franchise and avoided universal suffrage.
  • ◦ Although he maintained the abolition of feudalism and talked in terms of equality of people, but he revived some old laws of Bourbon monarchs in which there was a provision of arrest even without a warrant.
  • ◦ He reintroduced the titles of nobility that had been abolished during the Revolution, but he also created a system of merit-based promotion within the civil service that allowed talented individuals from all social backgrounds to rise through the ranks.
  • ◦ He also introduced the Napoleonic Code, a new legal code that replaced the patchwork of laws that had existed under the ancien régime, but which also codified many of the principles of the Revolution, such as equality before the law and religious toleration.
    • ■ The objective of the Napoleonic code was to maintain balance and stability in society that's why he consciously subordinated the females to the male members of the society.
• • He tried to link his lineage to the Bourbon kings and in their fashion, he concentrated the power into his hand.
  • ◦ Although his monarchy was different from the Bourbon monarchy, in that it was approved by the popular support and plebiscite.
  • ◦ On the one hand he neglected the legislative body but on the other hand, he got the approval for his policy directly from the people through the method of a plebiscite.
  • ◦ Likewise, through secret police, he preferred to eliminate his enemy.
• • One way that Napoleon linked old France to New France was through his use of symbols and pageantry. Napoleon recognized the power of symbols and rituals in reinforcing the legitimacy of his regime, and he drew on both the traditions of the ancien régime and the symbols of the Revolution to create a new, hybrid system of symbols and rituals.
  • ◦ For example, he adopted the imperial eagle as a symbol of his regime, which harked back to the traditions of the Roman Empire. At the same time, he also retained some of the symbols of the Revolution, such as the tricolor flag and the "Marseillaise" national anthem.

Overall, Napoleon sought to create a new order in France that drew on both the traditions of the past and the values of the Revolution. By linking old France to New France in this way, he was able to create a regime that was seen as legitimate and stable, while also introducing significant reforms that helped to modernize French society and lay the groundwork for future political developments.

What was the contribution of Napoleon Bonaparte to Europe?

• • Major contribution: the spread of nationalism and the ideals of the revolution.
  • ◦ Wherever Napoleon went, he brought certain reforms with him. For example, he abolished feudalism, put a check over the church and introduced the Napoleonic code. Because of this, monarchial nations transformed into popular nations, subjects became citizens and different regions started to emerge as nations.
  • ◦ Due to the exploitative policy of Napoleon in that region, popular reaction set in against his policy and it took the form of nationalist resistance.
• • In the case of Italy and Germany, his geographic reorganization became the harbinger of the future integration of Italy and Germany.
• • It is said that although the Napoleonic Empire proved ephemeral, his reforms were put on granite.
  • ◦ Napoleonic reforms continued in Europe even after Napoleon Bonaparte. It was because most of the reforms carried by Napoleon Bonaparte suited to the interest of the rising middle class.

Reasons for the Decline of Napoleon

Though Napoleon empire collapsed as a result of his defeat in a battle, this defeat itself was the outcome of a number of factors operating at various levels.

Was the Napoleonic Empire bound to collapse due to its internal contradictions?

Although Napoleon created one of the largest empires in Europe, right from the very beginning, this empire had continued to face some basic contradictions.

The Napoleonic Empire was very extensive, but its foundations were weak because it was resting on a number of inherent contradictions that affected its ethical, moral foundations.

• • Napoleon proclaimed himself as the 'son of revolution', but many of the essential ideals of revolution were abandoned by him.
• • One major contradiction was the incompatibility between the noble ideas of revolution and the reality of the Napoleonic Empire. Initially, Napoleon was welcomed by European people as a liberator, but very soon the imperialistic character of his rule was exposed, and people turned against him.
• • One of the major factors behind the military success of France against Europe was military conscription (citizens' army). However, soon afterwards, every nation adopted the same method and France lost its relative advantage. Now, the French were outnumbered by the soldiers of other European nations together.
• • Napoleon dealt with European nations individually and tried to keep them divided. But as Napoleon defeated and humiliated European kings, obviously, he unconsciously gave them a common ground for developing a sense of fellow feeling. So, from time-to-time, European nations formed coalitions against Napoleon Bonaparte.

Faults in Personality

Napoleon was a great military conqueror, but he suffered from a number of personal limitations. These limitations of his personality hastened the process of his downfall once it commenced.

• • Napoleon was autocratic. He imposed his will on other without caring for their opinion.
  • ◦ Many of his advisors and well wishes left him and during the hour of crisis, he could not get the best input.
• • Napoleon was over-ambitious.
  • ◦ In fact, his ambitions knew no limits. At one time. Entire continental Europe was under his dominance, but his desire for Britain doomed the fate of his empire.
• • Napoleon was selfish and opportunist.
  • ◦ He pursued his dreams and ambitions blindly. Many of his well-wishers left him to join hands with his enemies.
• • Napoleon was revengeful in his outlook.
  • ◦ He failed to learn the art of forgiveness, because of this, the events of past continuously haunted him and he could not concentrate on future.
• • Napoleon was overconfident.
  • ◦ He under-estimated the strength and capabilities of his opponents. This had played an important role in his disastrous fall during Russian campaign and defeat in the battles of Leipzig and Waterloo.
• • Napoleon faced serious health problems during the last years of his reign.
  • ◦ While fighting in the battle of Leipzig, he was unable to sit on a horse for a long time. This affected the effectiveness of his command & contributed to his defeat.

Character of the Napoleonic Empire

• • The Napoleonic empire was over-centralized.
  • ◦ The level of institutionalization of empire was quite low. No smooth administration.
  • ◦ Everything revolved around the personality of Napoleon. This one-person-centric empire could not be administered effectively when Napoleon got busy in continuous wars and battles.
• • Napoleon created an extensive empire within a short period of time, but he could find no time for its consolidation because of which the foundation of his empire remained weak, and it could not last long.

Thus, it kept on facing internal stress and strain which played an important role in the downfall ultimately.

Role of Nationalism:

• • Napoleon was a symbol of French nationalism. But his imperialism outside France was against the spirit of nationalism of German, Italian, Spanish and Russians etc.
• • Napoleon seized the crown of Spain deceptively, by pressurizing Spanish ruler Charles IV and his son Ferdinand to renounce their claims to the throne. He imposed the rule of his Brother Joseph Bonaparte on Spain. This Napoleonic imperialism triggered national upsurge in Spain. The Spanish rebels inspired by the spirit of nationalism fought hard against the forces of napoleon. They used the guerilla method of warfare against which napoleon's military could not stand napoleon got trapped in a crisis known as 'Spanish war'.
• • His withdrawal from Spain seriously affected his prestige and the myth of Napoleon's in win ability got shattered. This inspired the Germans, Italians, Russians to rise against napoleon dominance and they defected him in a battle of Leipzig leading to the downfall of Napoleon empire.

More reasons behind the decline of Napoleon Bonaparte:

• • Continental system:
  • ◦ Napoleon introduced the system without the proper planning and preparation.
  • ◦ It resulted in scarcity of essential goods and created wider public discontent.
  • ◦ Forced implementation against the will led to the Peninsular war that sapped his energies.
  • ◦ This popular revolt was later joined by European power against Napoleon. So, Napoleon was defeated in 1813.
• • Napoleon was dependent too much on the military option. He did not learn the technique that how to perpetuate the victory through the method of diplomacy.
  • ◦ For example, he fought 5 battles with Austria, but 3 battles were fought only for preserving the gains ensured through the earlier two battles.
• • The Moscow expedition was a major mistake on the part of Napoleon Bonaparte.
  • ◦ In this expedition, a substantial part of his Grande Army was destroyed, and he also lost prestige.
  • ◦ A big mistake on the part of Napoleon was that he went on such a devastating expedition in the eastern part (Moscow expedition) while in west, Britain was still unconquered. The same mistake was committed by Hitler 130 years later.

French Revolution — 4th Phase: Napoleon (1799-1814)

Why is Napoleon considered the child of the Revolution?

Napoleon was the child of revolution. He was product of the circumstances created by revolution. It was the revolution itself that prepared the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Without the positive transformations brought about by the French revolution of 1789 a commoner like Napoleon could have never achieved such phenomenal success.

• • The revolution overthrew the old regime based on class privileges, aristocratic values and feudal institutional. The revolution opened the gate for the rise of talent/merit.
  • ◦ A commoner like Napoleon could never have received a high military rank or dreamt of becoming head of state of France without it.
  • ◦ The revolution proclaimed the principle of equality as the basis of state and society. The class privileges were wiped out. Any Frenchmen irrespective of his social background could aspire for high offices under the state.
• • The French monarchy was abolished by revolution in 1792. The throne was empty after the regicide and discontinuation of hereditary monarchy. This empty throne could be filled by Napoleon to become the head of state.
• • The revolution provided an opportunity for Napoleon to capture the imagination of Frenchmen through his phenomenal success. In the in the absence of revolutionary wars, Napoleon would have never gained such popularity.
• • It was the ideals of the revolution which legitimized the position of Napoleon Bonaparte on many occasions.

Reasons for the Rise of Napoleon

• • Role of the revolution
  • ◦ Napoleon was the child of revolution. He was product of the circumstances created by revolution. (explained already)
• • Role of counter-revolution:
  • ◦ The revolution of 1789 destroyed the old regime successfully, but it failed to replace it with a new stable structure. The failure of various experiments pushed France into serious internal disorder.
  • ◦ The common Frenchmen were tired of the fluctuations in their fortune, economic instability and the extreme violence faced by France. By 1799, the people were strongly demanding peace and stability.
• • Role of Nationalism and French Revolutionary War
  • ◦ The phenomenal victories of Napoleon against the enemies of France satisfied the nationalist hunger for glory of common Frenchmen. These victories had captured the imagination of masses in France and the Frenchmen became the blind supporter of Napoleon.
• • Failure of Directory
  • ◦ The institution of directory was created in 1795 to eliminate the possibility of misuse of state authority by one individual but this institution proved to be completely ineffective & its polities pushed France into a bigger crisis, on both internal as well as external fronts.
  • ◦ Since the directory was bringing national shame and disgrace, when Napoleon threw it off, not a single Frenchmen shed tears.
• • Role of Napoleon's personality, talent and policies
  • ◦ His achievements were unparalleled. The reforms initiated by him in Italy during 1796–97 proved his administrative acumen. That is why, the people had started looking towards Napoleon to pull them out of the situation of disorder.
  • ◦ Napoleon was a common born person. He was a son of revolution. His rise as a head of the state was a guarantee of safety for the ideas of revolution.
  • ◦ Section-wise support:
    • ■ The nationalists supported Napoleon because he brought national glory.
    • ■ Common masses supported him because he was expected to secure the gains of revolution.
    • ■ The monarchists supported him because they were hopeful that only a strong personality like Napoleon could restore the monarchical system in France.
    • ■ The bourgeoisie supported Napoleon because his rise was the guarantee of peace and stability.
  • ◦ The massive support passed the way for the rise of Napoleon in 1799.

Napoleonic Reforms to consolidate the gains of Revolution

• • In the administrative field, he left the legacy of a visionary government.
  • ◦ Napoleon created a modern state system in France based on the ideas of equality, rule of law, secularism, merit, toleration & the doctrine of peaceful co-existence (fraternity)
  • ◦ There was resemblance with the Revolutionary era:
    • ■ Executive power:
      • ■ National Convention: Different committees.
      • ■ Directory: 5 directors
      • ■ Napoleon Bonaparte: 3 councils.
  • ◦ When Napoleon declared himself to be the first Consul for a lifetime or an emperor, he represented the French republic.
  • ◦ Creation of a system of merit-based promotion within the civil service.
  • ◦ Napoleon carried out centralization of administrative to counter the prevailing disorders and instability.
    • ■ Central secretariat was created by him to manage the administrative affairs.
    • ■ He appointed officers known as perfects and sub perfects at district level. They were responsible to central government.
• • Even in the economic field, Napoleon carried the legacy of the revolution.
  • ◦ National Convention had originally brought a plan for the survey of whole income in France. Later, it was implemented by Napoleon.
  • ◦ The land captured by peasants from feudal lords was recognized as their property.
  • ◦ The doctrine of Laissez Faire (Free Trade) was adopted.
  • ◦ Freedom of profession was granted to every French citizen.
  • ◦ The National Convention brought a plan for organizing exhibitions to promote industrialization. Napoleon also adopted this method.
    • ■ Machines were imported to commence the Industrial Revolution.
  • ◦ Directory had introduced metallic coins, which were continued by Napoleon. Bank of France was established in 1800.
• • Legal reforms
  • ◦ Napoleon created a modern judicial legal system in France in accordance with the ideas of the revolution. Rule of law was implemented without any discriminatory treatment on the basis of birth or any other criteria.
  • ◦ Napoleon codified the laws under Code Napoleon (1807)
    • ■ It replaced the patchwork of laws that had existed under the ancien régime.
    • ■ It codified many of the principles of the Revolution, such as equality before the law, the right to property, and religious toleration.
    • ■ It had separate provisions for civil and criminal matters. It was having a separate commercial court to deal with the economic offences.
    • ■ It was simple, liberal & progressive. It inspired and deeply influenced the judicial legal system all over the world.
• • In social field, Napoleon could maintain certain ideals of revolution.
  • ◦ He continued the abolition of feudalism & maintaining equality in society.
• • Religious Reforms
  • ◦ The French Revolution of 1789 attacked the institution of Church fiercely to wipe out its evils. Such acts of revolution were deeply resented by many Frenchmen who were committed Catholic.
  • ◦ In 1801, Napoleon entered a religious treaty with pope as Concordat (religious peace) that established the relation of state with church and satisfied the religious aspirations of Frenchmen.
  • ◦ As per the concordat,
    • ■ Roman Catholicism was recognized as the religion of majority of French people.
    • ■ Religious freedom was guaranteed to every Frenchmen including the atheist.
    • ■ The priest would be selected by the state and were to be invested by the Pope.
    • ■ The priests were too paid by state.
• • Establishment of a national education system.
  • ◦ Napoleon initiated several steps in the field of education so that thinking of Frenchmen can be regulated.
  • ◦ In 1802, a series of military style schools known as Lycee was created.
  • ◦ In 1808, French university system was established.
  • ◦ Ecole Polytechnique was established to produce engineers.
  • ◦ Teachers training institutes were established and only these teachers were appointed in schools.
  • ◦ The education of women was neglected by Napoleon.
• • Even outside of France, he was welcomed as crowned-Jacobian, as Napoleon projected himself as the representative of revolution.
  • ◦ The principles of liberty, equality, Fraternity, rule of law, toleration and laissez faire were implemented by Napoleon in Italy as well as in Germany.
  • ◦ He was welcomed as a liberator by common masses and because of this, his empire symbolized the extension of revolution beyond French borders.

By presenting himself as a leader who was carrying on the legacy of the Revolution, Napoleon was able to win the support of many French people who had been disillusioned by the chaos and violence of the revolutionary period. Although his autocratic rule and military conquests ultimately led to his downfall, the legacy of the Revolution continued to inspire political movements throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

Did Napoleon reverse some of the ideals of the revolution?

• • In political field
  • ◦ Napoleon put a check over liberty, one of the ideals of the revolution.
    • ■ Napoleon restored the monarchy in altered form and even tried to link his legacy to old Bourbon kings. He called Louis XIV 'mon-oncle' means my uncle.
    • ■ Political liberty was curtailed by him:
      • ■ More than 20 people could not gather without the permission of state.
      • ■ Anybody could be arrested on suspicion of indulging in Anti state activities.
      • ■ Political dissidents were prosecuted.
  • ◦ Although he permitted equality, for him the equality means equal opportunity for all but not economic equality of wealth
    • ■ Napoleon was product of equality. This was the most cherished ideal of FR but the institution of legion of honor created by him was against the principle of quality. This institution created a kind of semi-mobility in France.
    • ■ Napoleon proclaimed his faith in the principle of merit. He was the product of a system based on merit, but he dissolved this principle by appointing his brothers and other close relatives to high offices.
  • ◦ Napoleon proclaimed his faith in the ideal of fraternity, but his wars and battles were against this very ideal.
  • ◦ He also revived some of the unjust laws of old Bourbon kings in which there was a provision for arrest even without a warrant. (eg letters de cachet)
  • ◦ He put a check over the political parties and preferred to eliminate his enemies through his secret police. It became a very common feature among the future dictators.
  • ◦ He sidelined the legislative body and carried his works through plebiscite.
  • ◦ Democratic instruments like the plebiscite were used by Napoleon to strengthen but at the same time, he curbed the power and functions of elected bodies for effective control over administrative.
• • In the economic field
  • ◦ The emphasis of revolution had been on free trade but Napoleon always emphasized mercantilist policy. (eg. continental system)
  • ◦ Likewise, the revolution had emphasized the method of direct tax but Napoleon gave more emphasis on indirect tax.
    • ■ In 1804, he laid the foundation of an excise bureau.
• • In the social field
  • ◦ Napoleon's code was inspired by the Roman code of law in which female members were subordinated to the male members and the head of the family was enjoying too much power. So even these measures seemed counter to the basic ideals of the revolution.
  • ◦ Napoleon did nothing for the empowerment of women. He neglected their education.
• • Even outside of France, he represented rather the distorted ideas of the revolution.

How did Napoleon link old France to New France?

Napoleon certainly adopted some measures which could bring stability and prosperity in France. Even on the military front, France could get a better success but in this course, Napoleon changed the course of the revolution itself. Therefore, the role of Napoleon needs a rational and balanced evaluation.

• • On the one hand, Napoleon was a revolutionary figure who sought to break with the traditions and institutions of the ancien régime. On the other hand, he also recognized the need to maintain some continuity with the past in order to ensure stability and legitimacy for his regime.
  • ◦ The Old France meant pre-revolutionary France and New France meant the radical France of the post-revolutionary era.
• • On the one hand, he tried to maintain equality but put a certain check on liberty.
  • ◦ He put a check on liberty and even defined equality in a practical way as for him equality meant equal opportunity for all but not economic equality. So, even on the front of equality, he was a bit cautious as he promised to apply the equality of opportunity.
  • ◦ He maintained the limited franchise and avoided universal suffrage.
  • ◦ Although he maintained the abolition of feudalism and talked in terms of equality of people, but he revived some old laws of Bourbon monarchs in which there was a provision of arrest even without a warrant.
  • ◦ He reintroduced the titles of nobility that had been abolished during the Revolution, but he also created a system of merit-based promotion within the civil service that allowed talented individuals from all social backgrounds to rise through the ranks.
  • ◦ He also introduced the Napoleonic Code, a new legal code that replaced the patchwork of laws that had existed under the ancien régime, but which also codified many of the principles of the Revolution, such as equality before the law and religious toleration.
    • ■ The objective of the Napoleonic code was to maintain balance and stability in society that's why he consciously subordinated the females to the male members of the society.
• • He tried to link his lineage to the Bourbon kings and in their fashion, he concentrated the power into his hand.
  • ◦ Although his monarchy was different from the Bourbon monarchy, in that it was approved by the popular support and plebiscite.
  • ◦ On the one hand he neglected the legislative body but on the other hand, he got the approval for his policy directly from the people through the method of a plebiscite.
  • ◦ Likewise, through secret police, he preferred to eliminate his enemy.
• • One way that Napoleon linked old France to New France was through his use of symbols and pageantry. Napoleon recognized the power of symbols and rituals in reinforcing the legitimacy of his regime, and he drew on both the traditions of the ancien régime and the symbols of the Revolution to create a new, hybrid system of symbols and rituals.
  • ◦ For example, he adopted the imperial eagle as a symbol of his regime, which harked back to the traditions of the Roman Empire. At the same time, he also retained some of the symbols of the Revolution, such as the tricolor flag and the "Marseillaise" national anthem.

Overall, Napoleon sought to create a new order in France that drew on both the traditions of the past and the values of the Revolution. By linking old France to New France in this way, he was able to create a regime that was seen as legitimate and stable, while also introducing significant reforms that helped to modernize French society and lay the groundwork for future political developments.

What was the contribution of Napoleon Bonaparte to Europe?

• • Major contribution: the spread of nationalism and the ideals of the revolution.
  • ◦ Wherever Napoleon went, he brought certain reforms with him. For example, he abolished feudalism, put a check over the church and introduced the Napoleonic code. Because of this, monarchial nations transformed into popular nations, subjects became citizens and different regions started to emerge as nations.
  • ◦ Due to the exploitative policy of Napoleon in that region, popular reaction set in against his policy and it took the form of nationalist resistance.
• • In the case of Italy and Germany, his geographic reorganization became the harbinger of the future integration of Italy and Germany.
• • It is said that although the Napoleonic Empire proved ephemeral, his reforms were put on granite.
  • ◦ Napoleonic reforms continued in Europe even after Napoleon Bonaparte. It was because most of the reforms carried by Napoleon Bonaparte suited to the interest of the rising middle class.

Reasons for the Decline of Napoleon

Though Napoleon empire collapsed as a result of his defeat in a battle, this defeat itself was the outcome of a number of factors operating at various levels.

Was the Napoleonic Empire bound to collapse due to its internal contradictions?

Although Napoleon created one of the largest empires in Europe, right from the very beginning, this empire had continued to face some basic contradictions.

The Napoleonic Empire was very extensive, but its foundations were weak because it was resting on a number of inherent contradictions that affected its ethical, moral foundations.

• • Napoleon proclaimed himself as the 'son of revolution', but many of the essential ideals of revolution were abandoned by him.
• • One major contradiction was the incompatibility between the noble ideas of revolution and the reality of the Napoleonic Empire. Initially, Napoleon was welcomed by European people as a liberator, but very soon the imperialistic character of his rule was exposed, and people turned against him.
• • One of the major factors behind the military success of France against Europe was military conscription (citizens' army). However, soon afterwards, every nation adopted the same method and France lost its relative advantage. Now, the French were outnumbered by the soldiers of other European nations together.
• • Napoleon dealt with European nations individually and tried to keep them divided. But as Napoleon defeated and humiliated European kings, obviously, he unconsciously gave them a common ground for developing a sense of fellow feeling. So, from time-to-time, European nations formed coalitions against Napoleon Bonaparte.

Faults in Personality

Napoleon was a great military conqueror, but he suffered from a number of personal limitations. These limitations of his personality hastened the process of his downfall once it commenced.

• • Napoleon was autocratic. He imposed his will on other without caring for their opinion.
  • ◦ Many of his advisors and well wishes left him and during the hour of crisis, he could not get the best input.
• • Napoleon was over-ambitious.
  • ◦ In fact, his ambitions knew no limits. At one time. Entire continental Europe was under his dominance, but his desire for Britain doomed the fate of his empire.
• • Napoleon was selfish and opportunist.
  • ◦ He pursued his dreams and ambitions blindly. Many of his well-wishers left him to join hands with his enemies.
• • Napoleon was revengeful in his outlook.
  • ◦ He failed to learn the art of forgiveness, because of this, the events of past continuously haunted him and he could not concentrate on future.
• • Napoleon was overconfident.
  • ◦ He under-estimated the strength and capabilities of his opponents. This had played an important role in his disastrous fall during Russian campaign and defeat in the battles of Leipzig and Waterloo.
• • Napoleon faced serious health problems during the last years of his reign.
  • ◦ While fighting in the battle of Leipzig, he was unable to sit on a horse for a long time. This affected the effectiveness of his command & contributed to his defeat.

Character of the Napoleonic Empire

• • The Napoleonic empire was over-centralized.
  • ◦ The level of institutionalization of empire was quite low. No smooth administration.
  • ◦ Everything revolved around the personality of Napoleon. This one-person-centric empire could not be administered effectively when Napoleon got busy in continuous wars and battles.
• • Napoleon created an extensive empire within a short period of time, but he could find no time for its consolidation because of which the foundation of his empire remained weak, and it could not last long.

Thus, it kept on facing internal stress and strain which played an important role in the downfall ultimately.

Role of Nationalism:

• • Napoleon was a symbol of French nationalism. But his imperialism outside France was against the spirit of nationalism of German, Italian, Spanish and Russians etc.
• • Napoleon seized the crown of Spain deceptively, by pressurizing Spanish ruler Charles IV and his son Ferdinand to renounce their claims to the throne. He imposed the rule of his Brother Joseph Bonaparte on Spain. This Napoleonic imperialism triggered national upsurge in Spain. The Spanish rebels inspired by the spirit of nationalism fought hard against the forces of napoleon. They used the guerilla method of warfare against which napoleon's military could not stand napoleon got trapped in a crisis known as 'Spanish war'.
• • His withdrawal from Spain seriously affected his prestige and the myth of Napoleon's in win ability got shattered. This inspired the Germans, Italians, Russians to rise against napoleon dominance and they defected him in a battle of Leipzig leading to the downfall of Napoleon empire.

More reasons behind the decline of Napoleon Bonaparte:

• • Continental system:
  • ◦ Napoleon introduced the system without the proper planning and preparation.
  • ◦ It resulted in scarcity of essential goods and created wider public discontent.
  • ◦ Forced implementation against the will led to the Peninsular war that sapped his energies.
  • ◦ This popular revolt was later joined by European power against Napoleon. So, Napoleon was defeated in 1813.
• • Napoleon was dependent too much on the military option. He did not learn the technique that how to perpetuate the victory through the method of diplomacy.
  • ◦ For example, he fought 5 battles with Austria, but 3 battles were fought only for preserving the gains ensured through the earlier two battles.
• • The Moscow expedition was a major mistake on the part of Napoleon Bonaparte.
  • ◦ In this expedition, a substantial part of his Grande Army was destroyed, and he also lost prestige.
  • ◦ A big mistake on the part of Napoleon was that he went on such a devastating expedition in the eastern part (Moscow expedition) while in west, Britain was still unconquered. The same mistake was committed by Hitler 130 years later.

The Continental System

By 1807, he was at the zenith of his power, stood like a colossal on the entire Europe. He had virtually subjugated the entire continent into subordinate power, except for Britain.

Napoleon considered Britain, after all, a country of shopkeepers. He wanted to defeat Britain but he had failed to defeat her militarily. Napoleon was invincible on land but British were superior on ocean. The defeat of French navy in the Battle of Trafalgar eliminated any possibility of military conquest of Britain in 1805. So, he started devising alternative plans in 1806. The continental system thus devised was an expression of Napoleon's imperialism.

He decided to bring the nation of shopkeepers on to the knees by adopting economic warfare. He understood that the spirit of Britain was in its trade. So, he organized a Continental system. There were two objectives:

• ◦ To deny the European market to Britain and thereby destroy the economic power of Britain.
  • ■ At this point by 1800s, British industrialization had virtually taken off.
  • ■ Napoleon's idea was to stop both: British industrial products and colonial re-export to the continent via Britain. He hoped to produce glut in production and drain away Britain's gold reserve. This way he wished to bring Britain to knees. He meant to 'conquer the sea by the land' as he said (not a direct warfare but an economic warfare).
• ◦ To replace in European market British goods by French goods (covert objective – to encourage French manufacturing as well)

In Berlin Decree of 1806, Warsaw Decree, Fontaine Decree and Milan Decree of 1807, he brought ordinances for all European countries and against Britain – British ships forbidden from anchoring at French port or any other port in Europe.

As an economic weapon, it was probably not very wrong in its conception but a whole lot of problems crept in when he tried to enforce it. It didn't become successful. In retaliation, British took some measures. It issued a series of Orders-in-Council which demanded that any ship of neutral state moving towards Europe must seek British permission by paying the requisite fee. They said any ship obeying Berlin decree would be considered as an enemy ship. To avoid this, the permit from Britain could be taken.

Britain not only had economic superiority, but also superiority at seas. She could cut-off France's connection with France's own colonial world, rather than France really forcing its writ on the high seas. But Napoleon's basic idea was not a colonial warfare but simply to shut the continental market to England. Napoleon ordered that if any neutral ship abides by the British regulation, then it would be considered as an enemy ship.

Impact of the Continental System

Napoleon was highly successful initially and British imports fell down to 1/3rd and it appeared as if the British economy would collapse. Initially, it was not a failure. By 1808, British exports went down by around 20-30%. Britain did suffer there was fall in production, goods could not be sold, they were being dumped in the warehouses, the industry was experiencing recession and there was social disturbance particularly the famous Luddite movement at the later time.

Britain could somehow tide over this crisis because of extension British colonial empire. On the other hand, the continental system turned entire Europe against Napoleon. Napoleon was actually drunk with power, and he couldn't understand the detrimental impact of this system. The system was created to destroy Britain, but it ended up in destroying the Napoleonic Empire.

• • Britain was not only the largest exporter of Europe but also the largest importer.
  • ◦ So, other countries no more could export to Britain – so it was equally damaging to Europe.
• • Britain manufacturing sector was developed - but not France as much.
  • ◦ French products couldn't compensate the loss of British products - because they were not in abundance - so big scarcity and extreme economic hardships.
  • ◦ The European rulers were already his enemies but now the common masses also turned him. He lost popular support which was the main sources of the strength of napoleon Empire.
  • ◦ When the people felt the pinch, Napoleonic argument was that Europe must unite and suffer temporary deprivation did not cut any ice with the people because they found hardly anything to choose between British domination or a French domination.
• • He could not enforce this system strictly.
  • ◦ What really upset Napoleon was the gradual emergence of a very large network of smuggling. It was a vast European coastline which Napoleon found very difficult to cut off. He did not have naval strength.
    • ■ Portugal was in very close alliance with Britain. It virtually acted as a subsidiary economy of England. So, goods would come to Portugal and through Spain, it could reach Europe.
    • ■ From its Malta centre, Britain continued its supplies secretly. It would come to the Italian coast, Adriatic and otherwise, and then from there through land route or Riverine route, reached the interior of Europe.
    • ■ It would also be a becoming through the North Sea or the Baltic region.
  • ◦ Historians have suggested that the Continental blockade was simply a blockade and attempt to cut off European market from British commodities. It was only later enlarged into the Continental System. The system was more comprehensive, it actually sought to use the entire European economy, the economy of the conquered and unconquered areas as subservient to French economy. This is where Napoleon failed miserably.
• • He could not control smuggling. Indeed, later he was obliged to relax it by introducing a licence system.
  • ◦ One historian has said that Napoleon in order to avoid smuggling, assumed the role of the smuggler himself. He even was obliged to import British books for his army.
  • ◦ And in 1810-11, when Britain was really suffering again, that was another peak wind British exports had gone down, Napoleon saved them by an export of wheat of which there was an abundant production in France.
• • Smuggling and black marketing - skyrocketing prices - people got vexed and angry.
  • ◦ So, in Europe one by one in different regions, the popular revolt started against Napoleon.
  • ◦ One reason why Napoleon intervened in Spain was that he needed to go to Portugal, and he could not take the sea route. It is here, he ordered the public burning of contraband goods, which created great deal of discontent and started popular unrest.
  • ◦ Most important is the Peninsular War in Spain. (1808-14).
  • ◦ Fifth Coalition (1809): Britain, Spain, Portugal and main mover was Austria, which was earlier defeated. Although it was quickly defeated by Napoleon, it contributed in the escalation of the Peninsular war.
• • The Pope was the first to abandon continental system. At this, Napoleon attacked Pope, but this action turned entire catholic world against him.
• • European rulers were not enthusiastic partners in this project.
  • ◦ They had joined under duress and out of fear against their own will.
  • ◦ Once the popular movement started in Spain, and Spanish people defeated Napoleon army, with this popular setback, even European monarchs started to revolt against Napoleon one by one.

Worst of all, Tsar Alexander declared that he would come out of the Continental system. By this time Napoleon was power drunken, he became obstinate and conceited as well, he couldn't tolerate this indiscipline of Russian monarch. So, he just decided to punish him by mobilizing 6 lakh soldiers and started a Moscow expedition. Russia was the easternmost part..!