Mughal Historiography

Different schools of historiography emerged for interpreting Mughal history.

1. Imperialist Historiography

British scholars like Smith and Elphinstone were the first to interpret the Mughal period, but they were specifically guided by British colonialism.

Since they had to justify British rule in India, they tried to undermine the Mughal legacy established by Akbar by undermining his achievements vis-a-vis Sher Shah.

Apart from that, in the economic field, British scholars like Moreland tried to prove that the economy under Mughals wasn’t in any better condition from that under the British in the 19th century.

2. Nationalist School

We can divide the nationalist school of historiography into two parts or subgroups-

• • (a) Communal historiography
• • (b) Secular historiography

(a) Communal historiography:-

Communal historiography is further divided into two subgroups -

Hindu Communalist approach:-

It was promoted by scholars like Sir Jadunath Sarkar, Aashirvadi Lal Shrivastava, etc.

The basic premise of their historiography was that due to the progressive policy of Akbar there was the formation of a vast Mughal Empire but once this policy was reversed by Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire disintegrated.

In this way, this historiography hovers around certain personalities in the interpretation of the Mughal Empire.

Muslim Communalist approach:-

This school was represented by scholars like I.H. Quraishi (First historian of Pakistan).

He tried to demonise Akbar while praising Aurangzeb.

For example, he emphasised that due to anti-Muslim policy of Akbar, Hindus became indisciplined. So, Aurangzeb’s tough attitude towards Hindus was necessary.

(b) Secular historiography:-

Scholars such as A.K. Majumdar were products of the national movement. So, naturally, they were anti-British.

They bitterly criticised the British Empire but considered it to be the descendent of the Mughal Empire. So, in the course of attacking the British Empire, they also attacked Mughals.

That’s why, they idolised regional rulers like Maharana Pratap of Mewar, Maratha King Shivaji and Lachit Borphukan of Assam who fought against Mughals.

3. Marxist Nationalist School:-

Aligarh School of historiography, led by Mohd. Habib, Noorul Hasan, Athar Ali, Irfan Habib, Shirin Moosvi, etc. is inspired by the Marxist school.

Certain features of this school are -

• • a. This school emphasised the role of socio-economic factors rather than the role of personalities.
  • ◦ For example, they emphasised that socio-economic and administrative crises like the Jagirdari and Agrarian crisis were more important for the decline of the Mughal Empire, than the activities of certain individuals.
• • b. It also emphasised upon the re-evaluation of sources.
  • ◦ For example, the policies of Akbar can’t be evaluated simply on the basis of the description by Abul Fazl.
• • c. Mughal administration was projected as a centralised structure.

4. Revisionist School

Scholars like Muzaffar Alam, Chetan Singh, Sanjay Subramaniam, P.J. Marshall, Karen Leonard, etc. have analysed Mughal history in a new light-

• • a. According to these historians the Aligarh School had unconsciously selected one hero and one villain from Mughal monarchs i.e. Akbar and Aurangzeb while neglecting others.
• • b. These scholars have rejected the perception of centralised Mughal administration and tried to highlight its limitations.
• • c. While interpreting the decline of the Mughal Empire, they have also rejected the empire-centric approach of Aligarh school instead they have adopted a region-centric approach.
• • d. While Aligarh scholars had declared the first half of the 18th century as the age of crisis, but the revisionist scholars took the first half of the 18th century as the era of economic prosperity.

BABUR

Tuzuk-i-Babari/ Baburnama

It is the autobiography of Babur, written as a journal in Chagatai Turk.

• • It was translated into Persian by two scholars.
  • ◦ Painda Khan
  • ◦ Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana
• • Only 18 years of his life survived in the work.
• • The language used is simple yet incisive.
  • ◦ Babur has written about himself with great candour.
    • ■ He has not tried to hide his shortcomings.
    • ■ Neither did he try to hide his father’s weakness.
• • Other than being an important source of history, Baburnamah is considered to be a literary marvel in its own right.
• • The work may broadly be divided into 3 parts.

First part-

• • It deals with his formative years and youth.
• • Babur informs us that he was born in 1483 in Ferghana.
• • He inherited his kingdom at the age of 12.
• • This part also covers his struggle and defeat to his rivals in Central Asia.
  • ◦ The battles of Samarkand and Bukhara have been mentioned.
  • ◦ Babur, informs us of his mistakes that led to the losses and his ultimate expulsion.
• • He also tells us of his conquest of Kabul (1504) and Kandhar in (1522).
• • He informs us that he was invited to India by the disgruntled nobles of Ibrahim Lodhi and other Indian rulers such as,
  • ◦ Daulat Khan Lodhi
  • ◦ Adil Khan Lodhi
  • ◦ Dilawar Khan Lodhi
  • ◦ Rana Sangha

Second Part-

• • It talks about Indian rulers and Babur’s clashes with them.
• • Babur has mentioned 5 Indian rulers:
  • ◦ Ibrahim Lodhi- Delhi - Babur has praised him, but also called him novice.
  • ◦ Bahadur Shah- Gujrat
  • ◦ Nusrat Shah- Bengal
  • ◦ Rana Sanga- Mewar
  • ◦ Krishna Deva Raya- Vijayanagra - Babur has praised him the most, and called him the ablest administrator and best general among all Indian kings.

Third Part-

• • Here, Babur discusses India, its flora, fauna, climate, people and diverse culture. He appears to be a better writer in this part.
  • ◦ He is pleased with India’s animals, especially the elephant which he encountered for the first time.
  • ◦ He was very fond of mangoes.
  • ◦ He was surprised to see India’s wealth, and used the terms “lakh”, “crore”, and “arab” to describe it.
  • ◦ However, he did not like India’s hot and humid climate.
  • ◦ According to him, Indians lack a sense of fashion, and they ‘roamed around naked’.
  • ◦ He says that Indian cities did not have gardens like those in Central Asia and Persia.
  • ◦ He also misses his favourite flowers, the Jasmine and the Rose.
  • ◦ He was extremely displeased with the lack of quality wines in India

Important battles in India-

• • 1526 - Battle of Panipat against Ibrahim Lodhi.
• • 1527 - Battle of Khanwa against Rana Sanga, near Fatehpur Sikri (declared as jihad).
• • 1528 - Battle of Chanderi against Medni Rai, another Rajput chief.
• • 1529 - Battle of Ghaggar (Bihar) against the Afghans, led by Mohammed Lodhi.

Emergence of Babur

Babur became the ruler of Fergana (1494) at a young age when his father Omar Shaikh Mirza died accidentally.

Babur was ambitious since childhood. He was eyeing Samarkand which was under his uncle, the ruler of Herat. So he attacked Samarkand but his uncle defeated him with the help of the Uzbek ruler, Saibani Khan Uzbek.

Babur, later, succeeded in conquering Samarkand with the help of the Shia Safavid ruler, Shah Ismail, although very soon he vacated it.

Impact of Central Asian politics on the Mughals

The Mughal rulers themselves were Sunni, but since they were allies of the Shia Safavid Empire, they distanced themselves from both the Sunni alliance (Uzbek and Ottoman Empire) and Sunni fanaticism.

Babur’s Invasion

Babur writes in the Tuzuk-i-Baburi right from his conquest of Kabul (1504) he dreamed of ruling India.

Reason

1. Kabul was economically backward, so Babur was attracted towards India’s wealth.
2. North India was politically fragmented and the Afghan nobles were in a power struggle against the Sultan.
3. As the legitimate successor of Timur, Babur had a claim over Punjab.

Babur’s conquest of Hindustan-

His campaign started with the battle of Bhira in 1518 and after the fifth invasion he finally captured Punjab.

Then he defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526 and captured Delhi and Agra.

But his victory couldn’t be considered complete before he defeated Rana Sanga at Khanwa in 1527, Medini Rai at Chanderi (1528) and the Afghans at Ghagghar (1529).

Reasons behind the success of Babur

1. Political fragmentation in North India and differences between various states.
2. The main cause behind the failure of the Afghans was the lack of the centralisation in the Afghan political system, the differences between the Sultan and the nobles as well as the undisciplined nobles.
3. Demonstration of superior combat technology by Babur, e.g. linking the Tulgama warfare system with artillery.

Impact of Babur’s conquest of Hindustan-

1. Re-established the prestige of the crown, that is, the position of the king became much stronger than the nobles.
2. Due to the use of artillery by Babur, better control over the provincial authorities by the central government became possible. This also encouraged administrative centralization.
3. Control over Kabul and Qandhar by an Indian ruler after a long period.
4. Powerful foreign policy and connection of Indian politics with that of Central Asia and West Asia.
5. Hindustan’s engagement with Central Asia and promotion of trade.

Do you agree with the statement that Babur was a dedicated warrior, not an empire-builder?

It is beyond doubt that Babur possessed unparalleled military acumen. Throughout his life, he remained involved in many military conflicts and also had several military successes. First, he captured Kabul and then after the battles of Panipat and Khanwa, he laid the foundation of the Mughal state.

It is true that he had insufficient time to properly focus on either strengthening the base of the newly founded Mughal state or to think in terms of territorial expansion.

But it is also equally true that Babur introduced certain measures which resulted in empire-building in the future.

• • Before the advent of Babur in India, in North India there was an uneasy balance of power between Afghans and Rajputs. Babur destroyed this balance in the battles of Panipat and Khanwa to establish Mughal primacy. So, empire-building in the north became possible in the future.
• • In order for the empire to survive, it was essential to deny the Mongol succession rule in India. Under the Mongol succession rule, the empire had to be divided among all the successors. Babur rejected it and advised Humayun not to enforce it after his death.
• • Babur infused a new spirit into the government as well. Actually, the structure of the Afghan government was based on a confederate system in which the position of a monarch was weak. Babur emphasised upon a centralised structure and took the title of Badshah. In fact, in this system of government, no other noble could make the claim of equality with the monarch.
• • Apart from that, he selected a liberal social policy for the government in India. Once he advised Humayun that he should never interfere in the religious life of Hindus. Such advice could become a precursor of the liberal religious policy of Mughals in India.
• • Likewise, he got his two sons Humayun and Kamran married with the Rajput princess from the family of Medini Rai. So it was Babur who revealed the potential of Mughal-Rajput relations in future.

In the light of these arguments, we can say that Babur’s steps prepared the way for empire-building in future.

Tuzuk-i-Baburi as a source of history

Tuzuk-i-Baburi is an autobiography of the Mughal ruler Babur, written in Chagatai Turk.

Positive aspect

1. It has wide significance as a source of study. It provides details of some major states of India, such as Delhi, Gujarat, Bengal, Mewar, Vijayanagar and Bahmani.
2. It also mentions the prosperity of India and various professional groups and production systems prevailing here.
3. Babur was interested in the geography of India. He has described the geographical landscape, animals, birds, vegetation of India in detail.
4. He was also a connoisseur of human behaviour and nature and has given details about it.
5. In many places, he is completely honest in his writing. He has exposed the weakness of his father and other relatives. At some places, he has revealed his own weaknesses also. On this basis, Tuzuk-i-Baburi appears to be close to the Confession of St. Augustine and that of Rousseau.
6. His sensibility as an author transformed a regional language into a rich literary language.
7. He was also a great connoisseur of art and architecture, but he did not like the architecture of India because it lacked balance and proportion.

Limitations

1. Tuzuk-i-Baburi does not cover Babur’s entire life. There are time gaps at many places.
2. Babur has manipulated the facts in his favour at many places. For example, in the Battle of Panipat, he states that Ibrahim Lodhi’s army was much larger than his army.
3. He seems to be biased against Indians in many places. For example, according to him, there is no lustre on the face of Indians, they are not intelligent. This description does not match the description of Amir Khusro.

Question- Does Babur appear to be a cultured person on the basis of Tuzuk-i-Baburi?

Humayun (1530–1555)

Sources

His biography ‘Humayun Nama’ was written by sister Gulbadan Begum in Persian, during Akbar’s reign.

Important events

• • 1532 - he defeated the Afghans near Allahabad.
• • 1534 - he defeated Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, and built Dinpanah - A new city at Delhi.
• • 1539 - he was defeated by Sher Shah Suri at the Battle of Chausa (Bihar)
• • 1540 - he was defeated again by Sher Shah Suri at the battle of Bilgram (Kannauj)
• • 1541 - he fled towards Rajasthan and married Hamida Banu Begum, a Persian lady, who gave birth to Akbar at Amakot (Sind).
  • ◦ After this, Humayun fled to Persia where he was given refuge to Shah Tamas I.
• • 1555 -he returned to India with Persian help and recovered Delhi. However, he could only rule for 10 months before dying accidently.

Challenges before Humayun after becoming the ruler

1. His brother Kamran captured Kabul and Kandahar, then Lahore, Hisar Firoza and other areas were also captured by him.
2. The foundation of the Mughal state, established by Babur, was very weak.
3. Humayun faced continuous revolt from Afghans.

Question: Was Humayun an incompetent king or an unfortunate one?

On the basis of traditional historiography, Humayun was declared to be lazy, lavish and addicted to opium. He spent his precious time building a new capital ‘Dinpanah’ in Delhi, neglecting the Afghan challenge.

But on the basis of the latest research on Humayun, such a view has seriously been challenged and certain hidden abilities in his personality have come to light.

Humayun presents a rare example not only in Indian history but also in the history of the world, of a king who lost his crown and then regained it. It was not possible without military ability and political acumen.

So far as the charge of opium taking is concerned, we shouldn’t forget that he was not an exception. Almost all the Mughal emperors took opium. Even Babur, who before the battle of Khanwa took the oath not to take wine, depended on opium for the rest of his life.

Likewise, the decision to build a new capital ‘Dinpanah’ was also a far-sighted one. Actually, due to the political ambition of Gujarat ruler, Bahadur Shah, Agra was under constant threat. So, it was a wise step to build an alternative capital in Delhi.

That’s why Humayun shouldn’t be taken as an incompetent ruler but rather as an unfortunate ruler.

Shershah Suri

Rise of Sher Shah:

By dint of his personal valour, entrepreneurship, diplomatic acumen and military talent, Shershah rose from being Jagirdar of Sasaram to the Badshah of Hindustan.

Sher Shah assimilated the elements of fox and the lion within his personality.

When we observe minutely, we come to know that even the material conditions of the time favoured him.

• • For example, firstly, he took advantage of the political confusion created by the continuous conflict between Mughals and Afghans.
• • Secondly, he made use of the Afghan rule of succession in his favour.
  • ◦ In the Afghan structure, succession was transferred from husband to wife. So, Shershah used this rule in his favour by marrying some prosperous Afghan widows.

Empire-building under Sher Shah:

• • The process of political unification had already started when Sikander Lodhi annexed Jaunpur.
  • ◦ Then the process of political unification continued under Babur and Humayun. Later, Sher Shah brought it to its climax.
• • Shershah created a big empire that extended to the border of Kashmir in the North to Vindhya in the South and the Indus region in the West to Bengal in the East.

Administrative structure:

• • The main challenge before Sher Shah was suppressing the Afghan legacy which worked as a major impediment in the way of administrative centralisation.
• • Sher Shah promoted administrative centralisation by combining the Afghan structure of government with the Turkish one.
  • ◦ The Turkish model of administration was relatively more centralised than the Afghan model where centrifugal forces were more active.
• • He made it clear that the rule of Afghan succession wouldn’t apply in government posts. Shershah gave emphasis on effective, transparent and active government.
• • Although he maintained the old departments under his government, he infused new strength into them. As we know, these departments existed even under the Sultans but Sher Shah heavily curtailed the power of the head of the departments.
• • For provincial administration, we can say that under Sher Shah, standard provincial administration didn’t start.
  • ◦ In the actual sense, this was introduced by Akbar later.
  • ◦ Under the Sultans, a number of Siqs were clubbed together into an irregular administrative unit, known as Khitta or Vilayat.
  • ◦ The same tradition continued under Shershah.
• • We can give credit to Shershah for the introduction of standardised local administration in the form of Sarkar and Pargana, i.e. Siq was replaced by Sarkar.
  • ◦ At the level of Sarkar, he appointed two officers, Siqdar-i-Siqdaran and Munsif-i-Munsifan. First was accountable for general administration while the second for land revenue administration.
  • ◦ Likewise, at the level of Pargana, there were officers, Siqdar and Munsif. Siqdar was responsible for general administration and Munsif for land revenue administration.
• • The village was the lowest unit of administration and was guided by two local officers i.e. Muqaddam and Patwari.
  • ◦ Muqaddam was the head of the village while Patwari was a semi-government officer who maintained the documents of the land revenue.
  • ◦ Maqaddam wasn’t a paid officer.

Land revenue reforms under Sher Shah

Objectives behind the reforms

• • To boost production
• • To augment state revenue
• • To give protection to the peasants.
  • ◦ Shershah believed that the peasants were the axis of production and if they remained dissatisfied, it would affect the whole process of production.

Land measurement: -

• • Shershah re-introduced land measurement and for that, he made the Bigha and Gaz-i-Sikandari as a measuring unit.
• • His system is known as the Zabti system.
• • The system also accounted for soil fertility, according to which, land was categorised as good, average or bad.
  • ◦ The estimated production was adjusted as per the quality of land.

Recognition of the Rights of tenants:-

• • Shershah introduced the system of Patta and Qabuliyat.
  • ◦ In Patta, the rights of the peasants were clearly mentioned but in Qabuliyat the liability of peasants was mentioned.

Fixation of the rate of land revenue:-

• • Generally, 1/3rd of the total production was fixed as land revenue.
• • In order to make the collection more convenient, he introduced a rate chart known as Ray.
• • Furthermore, apart from the regular rate of land revenue, there were some additional taxes like Zaribana & Muhasilana.
  • ◦ The rate of the first was 2.5% of the total production while the second one was 5% of the total production.
• • Along with these taxes, the state used to impose an additional tax of 2.5 Ser per Bigha which was safely stored in local state storehouses, so that the grains could be used at the time of exigencies.

Approach to Zamindars and Intermediaries:-

• • Unlike Alauddin Khilji, Shershah adopted a very pragmatic approach to Zamindars and Intermediaries.
  • ◦ Instead of suppressing them he preferred to have an effective check over them.

Roads and Sarais

• • Sher Shah Suri built long arterial roads in India including-:
  • ◦ Sonargaon to Attock
  • ◦ Agra to Chittorgarh via Jodhpur
  • ◦ Multan to Attock
  • ◦ Agra to Burhanpur
• • On each road, trees were planted for shade.
• • At a distance of every 2 Kos (18 Kilometres) a Sarai was built.
  • ◦ Approximately 1700 such Sarais were built.
• • These Sarais served multiple purposes.
  • ◦ Each sarai had a Barid (intelligence officer)
  • ◦ Each sarai also had a well provisioned stable and Dak Chowki.
    • ■ According to Sarwani a message could be relayed from Bengal to Agra in a single day.
  • ◦ Each Sarais had 2 chefs, one Brahmin and the other Muslim.
    • ■ Food was provided free of cost to boarders.
  • ◦ The sarais had facilities for feeding and watering horses.
  • ◦ Each Sarai had a water well, which attracted locals.
    • ■ This resulted in the roads and sarais becoming safer.
• • Gradually sarais started to serve as a marketplace, which eventually evolved into towns.
  • ◦ Thus, they helped in the growth of the market economy and contributed to urbanisation.

Other reforms under Shershah:-

• • Shershah introduced the system of local responsibility for local crime. i.e. Muqaddam (the head of the village) had to be convicted if he failed to divulge the name of the criminal.
• • In order to boost trade and commerce, he adopted some other measures as well.
  • ◦ He introduced standard coins like silver currency, Rupiya, and copper currency Dam.
  • ◦ He standardised import duties and taxes. So now on goods, the tax could have been collected only at two points.
• • Shershah introduced some military reforms as well.
  • ◦ He introduced Chehra or Hulia as well as the system of Dagh (branding of horses).

Was Sher Shah an innovator or a reformer?

The period of Sher Shah drew the attention of a number of scholars because he made remarkable achievements within a short span of 5 years.

• • Although, he infused a new spirit into all institutions, whether he was an institution builder or reformer needs to be investigated.

In central administration, Shershah maintained all departments i.e. Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-Insha, Diwan-i-Arz and Diwan-i- Risalat.

• • But he promoted administrative centralisation through the curtailment of the power of officers.

As for provincial administration, we can say that Shershah couldn’t introduce any standard model, rather standard provincial administration (Suba) started later under Akbar.

On the other hand, the credit for introducing standard local administration can be given to Shershah, like the units of Sarkar and Pargana.

• • But here also, we come to know that the old system Siq and Pargana already existed, Shershah simply restructured them.

Likewise, as for military reforms, Shershah introduced the Hulia and Dagh but these had earlier been introduced by Alauddin Khilji. So, Shershah simply reintroduced it.

The practice of land measurement had first been introduced by Alauddin Khilji but there remained certain loopholes which Shershah tried to remove.

• • Even in Sher Shah’s system, some flaws remained, which Akbar tried to remove.
• • So land revenue reforms should be viewed as a process of gradual evolution and the entire credit shouldn’t be given to Shershah.

In the light of above factors, Shershah appears to be a great reformer but not an innovator.

Vijayanagara Empire

Background:

• • In c. 1334 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq marched to suppress a rebellion in Malabar. But, plague struck his camp. Rumours spread that the Sultan had perished along with thousands of others.
• • Immediately, all the southern units of the Empire viz. Malabar, Telangana, Kampil etc. revolted. At this point, Tughlaq decided to move back to Delhi.
• • Some of the old kingdoms survived and some emerged after the collapse of Tughlaq rule over the South, viz. Hoysalas of Mysore, Valema rulers of Warangal, Reddis of Telangana and Sultan of Madurai etc.
  • ◦ All these powers fought and aligned with each other as it suited them. The stage was set for the rise of two formidable powers in Peninsular India- Vijayanagara Empire and Bahmani Kingdom.
• • There is a consensus that Harihar and Bukka laid the foundation of Vijayanagara Empire in c. 1336 CE. However, their origin story has some variations.
  • ◦ A popular opinion is that they had served under the state of Warangal. When it fell to the Tughlaqs, they moved to Kampil.
  • ◦ They were captured, converted and sent to Delhi when Kampil fell, too.
  • ◦ However, MBT sent them back to consolidate the Sultanate control over Kampil.
  • ◦ Here, they deepened their roots and unfurled the banner of revolt when the suitable opportunity presented itself.
• • Their association with Musunuri Kapaya Nayak and a Hindu monk Vidyaranya (who allegedly brought them back into the fold of Hinduism) and some early policies of this upstart kingdom gave this independence project a tinge of Hindu revivalism.
• • But, we can clearly see that both, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdoms, were the result of regional assertion against imperial subjugation.

Political History of Vijayanagara Empire

Sangama Dynasty

• • Harihar of Sangama dynasty was crowned in c. 1336 CE. He was followed by his brother Bukka I in c. 1356 CE.
  • ◦ A new capital Vijayanagara was set up ostensibly on the advice of Vidyaranya during this period.
• • The struggle for Raichur doab started as early as c. 1356 CE when Raichur fell to the Bahamanis.
  • ◦ The warfare between two sides was frequent which had its roots in the ancient history of this geographical area.
• • During this period, first the Hoysala kingdom and later the Madurai Sultanate (till c. 1377 CE) were incorporated into the Empire.
  • ◦ Having reached peak expansion in the South, Vijayanagara embarked on the expansion in the West and North-East under Harihar II.
  • ◦ He snatched Belgaum and Goa from Bahamanis.
  • ◦ He also sent an expedition to northern Sri Lanka.
• • The struggle for the Doab area renewed under Deva Raya I.
  • ◦ But, he lost to the Bahamani Sultan, Firuz Shah Bahamani (c. 1397-1422 CE). He had to cede some territory in the doab, pay war indemnity and marry a daughter to Firuz Shah.
  • ◦ Later, Deva Raya aligned with Warangal to split the Reddi Kingdom between the two. This brought the Warangal out of the alliance with Bahamani Kingdom. Consequently, Deva Raya I inflicted a shattering defeat on the Firuz Shah Bahaman and annexed almost the entire Doab.
  • ◦ Also, Deva Raya I dug a canal to meet the drinking water needs of his capital. This canal and one other on Haridra River, were used for irrigation purposes also.
• • Deva Raya II inducted 2000 Muslim archers in his army and gave them Jagirs.
  • ◦ According to Ferishta, this was in addition to the 10000 Muslims already in the service of Vijayanagara army.
  • ◦ According to Nuniz, the kings of Sri Lanka, Quilon, Pegu, Tennasserim (Burma) and Malaya paid tribute to Deva Raya 2nd.
    • ■ Sri Lanka was invaded a number of times.
  • ◦ But, it is doubtful whether Vijayanagara was powerful enough in the Indian Ocean to extract tribute from Malaya and Burma.
  • ◦ This possibly means that these states wanted to maintain friendly relations with the Vijayanagara Empire and sent lavish gifts.
• • The death of Deva Raya II was followed by civil war. The geographical authority of his successors shrank considerably as many feudatories assumed independence.

Saluva Dynasty

• • The last ruler of the Sangama dynasty was overthrown by the Saluva Narsimha in c. 1485, laying the foundation of the Saluva dynasty. Narasimha was originally the governor of Chandragiri.
• • The Saluva kings restored order in the Empire. After them, came the Tuluva dynasty in c. 1505 CE.

Tuluva Dynasty

Krishna Deva Raya

• • Krishna Deva Raya (c. 1509-1530), the greatest of Vijayanagara Kings, belonged to this dynasty. He gained all around victories, patronised art & culture and brought military and administrative reforms.
  • ◦ He had to deal with internal problems and external problems, viz. the Deccani state, Orissa, Portuguese etc.
  • ◦ By this point, Portuguese had started to harass the small coastal feudatory states of Vijayanagara into making concessions.
• • Krishna Deva Raya defeated both Orissa state and Bijapur separately. He ousted them both from the Raichur doab.
• • However, unlike Cholas, he did not build a strong navy and largely ignored the Portuguese threat to the trade of Peninsular India.
• • The Portuguese possibly gave him a monopoly over the supply of horses.
• • Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller, has given a very positive account of his personality.

Decline of the Vijayanagar Empire

• • Some chaos followed his rule. He was succeeded by Achyuta Rai and Sadasiva Raya, consecutively.
• • Rama Raya, the prime minister of Sadasiva Raya, played the Deccan states against each other.
  • ◦ He concluded a pact with the Portuguese to deny horses to the Bijapur state.
  • ◦ He attacked Bijapur in alliance with Golconda and Ahmednagar in c. 1543.
  • ◦ Then, he sacked Ahmednagar in alliance with Bijapur.
  • ◦ But, he humiliated his allies who in turn patched up their differences.
  • ◦ Four of them united and defeated the Vijayanagara Kingdom in the battle of Talikota, c. 1565 CE.
  • ◦ Hampi, the Vijayanagara capital, was sacked. But, the kingdom lingered on for almost 100 years more while shrinking rapidly.

Aravidu Dynasty

• • Rama Raya’s brother, Tirumal Raya, and the King Sadasiva fled to Penugonda.
  • ◦ Gradually, Tirumal Raya retook some parts of the erstwhile empire and established order. Tirumala Raya led the foundation of the Aravidu dynasty in c. 1570 CE.
• • One of his successors, Venkat II shifted the capital to Chandragiri. He unsuccessfully tried to stem the rot and prevent further disintegration.
  • ◦ Gradually, the subordinate Nayaks of Mysore, Tanjore, Madurai and Bednur etc. became independent during the 17th century and the Vijayanagara Empire faded into insignificance.
• • Much of its territory was absorbed by Golconda and Bijapur.

Administration

• • Due to constant warfare, the military aspect of the kingdom was emphasised and it shaped the politico-administrative structure of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• • Though the institutions of Vijayanagara administration evolved locally, they had imprints of North India.

King

• • The King, called Raya, was an autocratic head of state, who gained legitimacy on account of his public works.
• • Kingship was hereditary, though revolts and coups were common.
• • The king was supposed to rule according to the Dharmashastras and local traditions.
  • ◦ A king was supposed to look after the interest of people.
  • ◦ In his work on polity, Krishna Deva Raya enjoins that a King should protect good and punish evil as far as possible.
  • ◦ Nothing should escape his due justice and he should tax his subjects moderately.
• • The King was assisted by a council of ministers and high ranking officials.
  • ◦ There was another council which consisted of provincial governors, Nayakas, Nigam representatives and other men of influence.
• • But, the King was not bound by their advice.
• • Princes could be enrolled into administration so as to gather experience.

Provincial Administration

• • Provincial administration had geographical and historical variations.
• • In the peripheral areas like the Tamil country and coastal areas, local chiefs were allowed to rule.
  • ◦ However, the royal administration maintained a watch over them and they had to pay regular tributes to the emperor.
• • The Kingdom was divided into Rajyas/Mandalam, headed by the Pradhans. Their number must have varied with the expansion and contraction of the empire.
• • Earlier, mostly the members of the royal family were Pradhans, but later, these posts went more to the military aristocrats. They were quite autonomous.
  • ◦ They could issue coins in their own name.
  • ◦ They could maintain their own militia.
  • ◦ They were authorised to levy new and abolish old taxes.
  • ◦ These governors had to send a fixed amount of revenue to the centre.
• • Kollam/ Valnadus were equivalent to the districts.
• • These were divided into Nadus, which in turn were subdivided into a group of villages known as ‘Melagrama’ or ‘Sthala’.
• • ‘Ur’ (village) was the smallest unit.
• • The concept of Rajyas, as an administrative and revenue unit, vanished by the time Nayaka system became entrenched under the rule of Krishna Dev Raya.

Nayankara System:

• • Constant warfare on all its sides made the Vijayanagara state militaristic and feudal. The Nayakara system should be evaluated in this context.
  • ◦ It was an administrative innovation of the Vijayanagara state.
• • According to some historians, Nayaks were originally military officers. Though, some believe that these were the Zamindars.
• • Eventually, Nayaks turned into a strong military-aristocratic class, which was difficult to subjugate at times.
  • ◦ Nuniz and Paes have left a detailed account of this system.
• • The state used to allot ‘Amaram’ land to the Nayaks.
  • ◦ In turn, they had to administer their area, pay a certain amount of revenue to the state and maintain a certain number of troops- elephants, cavalry, infantry etc.
• • The Nayaks were different from a typical provincial governor, in that they were not transferable. They were more like feudal lords.
  • ◦ They were more autonomous.
  • ◦ The office of a Nayak was hereditary.
• • The big Nayaks were called ‘Amarnayakas’ and smaller Nayaks were called ‘Palaigar’.
• • Amarnayakas were supposed to maintain two representatives - military and political - in the royal court.

Control

• • Theoretically, the state could take back their land. But, this was rare in practice.
• • The Vijayanagara state maintained a monopoly over the distribution of horses, so as to control these Nayaks.
• • Later, an official named ‘Mahamandaleshwara’ was appointed to monitor their movement during the reign of Achyuta Raya.
• • However, all these measures were not sufficient. Nayakas always remained a challenging centrifugal force for the Kings of Vijayanagara.

Ayagar System:

• • The local self-government institution of the Chola period had declined up to this time.
• • The responsibilities of village committees were taken over by a group of 12 officials.
  • ◦ They were paid in land grants.
  • ◦ Their post was hereditary and it could be bought and sold.
• • This whole system was called the Ayagar system.

Revenue Administration:

• • The main sources of the royal income were the revenue from crown land (Bhandarvada), tributes from the Nayaks, revenue from provincial governors and tolls on goods etc.
• • Other than that, houses, factories, occupations and herds etc. were taxed.
• • Even marriages were taxed.
• • Krishna Deva Raya had decreed that the 1/4th of the revenue had to be spent on the court, 1/2nd on the army and the 1/4 would go to the treasury.
• • Sometimes, a criticism is that the Vijayanagara state levied too many taxes.
  • ◦ But, given the all-around prosperity reflected in the sources, it is natural that the state would seek a part of it.
  • ◦ Also, the number of taxes may be more but their rates were lower. And, the state was adequately focused on public welfare.

Q: Was the foundation of Vijayanagara Empire a result of Hindu resistance?

Answer:

• • Vijayanagara Empire was the product of a cultural reaction to the Delhi Sultanate.
  • ◦ Harihar and Bukka took the help of Hindu revivalist movement of Kapaya Nayaka to complete their independence project.
  • ◦ They were also associated with a Hindu monk Vidyaranya.
  • ◦ During the early stages, Bukka I appealed to the Hindu scholars and artists from all around to come to the Vijayanagara Empire so as to give a Hindu identity to this state.
  • ◦ Often, the violence between Bahamanis and Vijayanagara took a bloody religious turn.
• • But, the claim of Hindu revival is rhetorical and not substantive.
  • ◦ There were no separate policies for the Hindu and Muslim subjects of the empire.
  • ◦ Mosques flourished during this period.
  • ◦ A large number of Muslim soldiers were enrolled into the Vijayanagara army.
  • ◦ Muslim merchants were quite active in this kingdom and the Arab merchants dominated the overseas trade.
  • ◦ While applying the Rajamandala principle, secular considerations alone prevailed. Vijayanagar’s earliest enemies were the Hoysalas, who were great patrons of Hindu temples.
  • ◦ When Gajapatis of Orissa occupied parts of the Vijayanagara kingdom, they aligned with the Bahamani kingdom to oust them.
  • ◦ Hindu Warangal was aligned with Bahamanis against Vijayanagara for a very long time.
  • ◦ Vijayanagara architecture borrowed freely from the Indo-Islamic architectural tradition.
• • Above facts are enough to convince us that the Vijayanagara Empire was a geopolitical entity with a separate cultural identity. It was not a Hindu revivalist state. It was a reaction to the exploitative intrusion of Delhi Sultanate into the region.

Nature of the Vijayanagara state:

• • The nationalist historiography led by Nilkantha Shashtri, which emphasised centralisation remained unchallenged for a long time.
• • Later, Burton Stein, rather unconvincingly, tried to apply the ‘Segmentary State Model’ to the Vijayanagara Empire.
  • ◦ Here, he tried to separate the ritual head of the state from the actual sovereign authority of an area.
  • ◦ He opined that there were many segments of power which were disjointed from each other.
  • ◦ The King did not control the far off region with the help of bureaucracy and army, rather with the help of religion and rituals.
  • ◦ An example was cited that the annual nine day Dussehra festival in the Vijayanagara capital was not presided over by the Brahmin priests but the King himself performed the rituals.
• • TV Mahalingam calls it a feudal state and compares it with European feudalism.
  • ◦ European feudalism chained the entire society together in the link of sub-infeudation by smaller and smaller land tenures and fealty to the immediate superior lord.
  • ◦ Whereas, the Nayakara system only bonded Nayaks with the King.
  • ◦ King gave them revenue assignments in return for certain responsibilities.
  • ◦ Though these Nayaks could lease out their land to smaller Nayaks, which looks like sub-infeudation, the concept of fealty by the small land holders and cultivators to the Nayaks is absent in the Nayakara system.
• • A closer reading of the accounts of foreign travellers and the Vijayanagara inscriptions by Karashima and Subbayaralu tells us that the Vijayanagara state was essentially feudal.
  • ◦ Karashima says that the strength of Vijayanagara state’s control over the Nayaks brings its feudalism closer to the ‘Tokugawa feudalism’ of Japan, more than the European feudalism
• • Herman Kulke calls it ‘military feudalism’.
• • Burton Stein himself modified his views in his book, ‘Vijayanagara’, in 1989 CE. He said that the Vijayanagara administration was based on the patrimonial bureaucracy model.

We can conclude from the above discussion that the Vijayanagara state was not centralised but it was a feudal state due to the presence of the Nayak class.

Causes for the disintegration of Vijayanagara Empire:

Vijayanagara was created as well as destroyed by the same set of factors.

• • It was surrounded by enemies. So, it could never reorient from being a military state to becoming a development oriented state.
  • ◦ Its essential character was feudal under the overall ‘Nayakara-Palaigar-Ayagara’ set up.
  • ◦ These military aristocrats were a headache for all the rulers and they easily broke into civil wars when the centre became weak.
  • ◦ Their deep rooted vested interests prevented the evolution of long lasting politico-administrative institutions that could embed the name of Vijayanagara kings into the popular mind for centuries.
  • ◦ The military-feudal state consumed all the surplus.
• • R. S. Sharma says that Vijayanagara state showed no enthusiasm for modernity unlike their contemporary European rulers, e.g. Henry, the navigator, of Portugal.
  • ◦ Barring its religious tolerance, its essential character was still medieval.
• • According to C. V. Vaidya, it was not possible to establish an eternal state as the state failed to set up robust mercantile processes.
  • ◦ Mercantilism was the order of the day in the world during this period.
  • ◦ The policy to allow the Portuguese to entrench themselves on the western coast, reduced its reputation as well as profits from overseas trade.
• • Due to its intense focus on patronising art, literature and architecture, the state spent a lot of wealth on these narrow groups instead of commissioning durable public welfare works.
  • ◦ Nuniz says that the peasants ended up giving as much as 80% of their production to different agencies.
• • As long as Vijayanagara could keep its enemies from uniting, it sustained. But, it all changed in the battle of Talikota which ended the glory of Vijayanagara.
  • ◦ However, the state lingered for the next hundred years or so.
  • ◦ The capital was first moved to Penugonda by Tirumal of the Aravidu dynasty. He regained some portions of the erstwhile state back and established law & order.
  • ◦ Venkat II was the last ruler who tried to revive the empire from his new capital, Chandragiri.
  • ◦ However, during the 2nd half of the 17th century, regional chiefs asserted themselves and much of the remaining territory was absorbed by Golconda and Bijapur.

Foreign Travellers

During the reign of Devraya I, NICCOLO CONTI (Italian traveller) visited Vijayanagara.

• • He has given a detailed account of the city of Vijayanagar, which according to him, was “as large and as beautiful as Rome”.
• • He has also commented on the prevalence of Sati.

The Persian traveller ABDURR RAZZAQ visited India during the reign of Dev Raya II. He first visited the Zamorin of Calicut and then went to the Vijaygnara empire.

• • He was a historian and scholar from Herat, sent to Vijayanagar as an ambassador of the ruler of Khurasan, Shah Rukh Mirza, to the court of Deva Raya II.
• • He has described the time period of Deva Raya II in his travelogue, ‘Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain’.
• • He specially describes the wealth and splendour of the capital. He vouches that Vijayanagar’s market was ten times the size of Herat’s market.
  • ◦ He says Vijayanagar was the largest and the most well provisioned city in the world.
  • ◦ According to him, traders of precious metals and jewels flocked its streets and bazaars, and the market sold every commodity imaginable.
  • ◦ He mentions that the Vijayanagara treasury was filled with molten gold nuggets.
• • According to him, Vijayanagara had seven fortification walls within which there were provisions of all year water supply and agriculture fields.
• • He mentions that the Sati system prevailed in Vijayanagara.
• • According to him, state derived taxation income from prostitution and brothels.
• • He pegs the strength of Vijayanagara army at 11 lakh and counts the number of ports at 300.

During Krishna Deva Raya’s reign, 2 Portuguese travellers visited the empire-

• • DURATE BARBOSA -
  • ◦ He describes the ship building and sati system.
  • ◦ He mentions that diamond and precious stones were imported from Pegu and silk was imported from China, whereas, black pepper came from Malabar coast.
• • DOMINGO PAES
  • ◦ He was received by Krishnadeva Raya at his court.
  • ◦ He has described the beauty of Vijayanagar and the king’s personal attributes. According to him, Krishna deva raya was a warrior king, whose body was covered in battlescars.

During the reign of Achyuta Raya, the Portuguese horse trader, FERNANDO NUNIZ, visited the empire.

• • He has mainly described the social and cultural aspects of Vijayanagara in his travelogue.
  • ◦ He says that there were women scribes, wrestlers, astronomers, musicians and fortune tellers in Vijayanagara.
  • ◦ He also mentions the social evils like dowry, Sati and child marriage which prevailed in the Vijayanagara society.
  • ◦ He praises the Brahmins of Vijayanagara as honest people who were good scribes also.
  • ◦ According to Nuniz, the rulers of Quilon, Sri Lanka, Pulicat, Pegu, Tennasserim and Malaya paid tribute to the Vijayanagara King.
  • ◦ He also describes the Nayankara system and says that the rate of land revenue was 1/10th.

BAHMANI SULTANATE (1347-1687)

Unified Bahmani (1347-1482)

• • After Muhammad bin Tughlaq abandoned Daultabad, it was captured by Zafar Khan also known as Hasan Gangu in c. 1345 CE. He took the title, ‘Allauddin Bahaman Shah’ upon founding the Bahmani Sultanate which lasted roughly two centuries.
• • He moved his capital to Gulbarga in c. 1347 CE, which was moved again to Bidar in c. 1422 CE.
• • A running theme in the entire history of Bahamani Kingdom is the struggle with Vijayanagara Empire for the control over Raichur Doab, Krishna-Godavari Delta and the Konkan coast, especially its ports like Goa and the conflict between Afaqi and Dakhni nobles.
• • Political fortunes kept swinging and the details of individual struggles are not important from the point of view of historical processes.

Firoz Shah Bahmani

• • The brightest star on the Bahmani firmament was the Firuz Shah Bahamani (c. 1397-1422 CE).
• • He was a polymath who was deft in religion, logic, natural sciences and linguistics etc.
  • ◦ He was conversant in several languages such as Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Urdu, Kannada and Telugu.
• • He was tolerant of other religions and had personally read both the Old and New Testament.
  • ◦ It was during his reign that Gesu Daraz, the famous Chishti Sufi saint established his Khanqah at Gulbarga.
• • The decline of the Delhi Sultanate meant that many learned men migrated from Delhi to the Gulbarga.
• • Firoz also invited scholars and nobles from Iraq and Iran.
  • ◦ Many of these West Asian migrants were Shiite. Under their influence, Persian culture and Shiite doctrine grew within the Bahmani Sultanate.
• • He also inducted a large number of Hindus in administration, which possibly acted as a balance against the influx of foreigners called Afaqis or Gharibs.
• • He built an observatory at Daulatabad.
• • Having initially defeated Devaraya I, he was later dealt a crushing defeat by a Warangal-Vijayanagar alliance led by Devaraya I and was forced to abdicate in favour of his brother Ahmad Shah ‘Wali’.

Ahmed Shah Wali

• • He conquered Warangal, thus breaking the Vijayanagar-Warangal alliance. Following this, he shifted the capital to Bidar to better control the newly conquered territory.
• • This shifted the balance of power in the favour of Bahamanis.
  • ◦ They conquered Berar, Khandesh and some parts of the Konkan coast during the second half of the 15th century.
• • As a result, Vijayanagar was considerably weakened. The period after Devaraya II was a period of chaos and the frontiers of Vijayanagar shrank on all sides.
  • ◦ The confusion allowed the Gajapatis of Orissa to move into the Delta region.
• • However, he is remembered more for his contribution as sufi saint than as a ruler. He was a close associate of Gesu Daraz and his death anniversary is jointly celebrated by both Hindus and Muslims.

Muhammad Gawan

Not much is known about his early life. He gradually rose in the service of the Bahamani kingdom until he was appointed as ‘Wakil-us Sultanat’ (Prime Minister) when the new King Muhammad Shah III was coronated in 1463. He dominated the affairs of the Bahamani kingdom for the next two decades.

Territorial Expansion

• • He aligned with Vijayanagara to defeat the Gajapatis.
• • He also made deep inroads into Vijayanagara.
  • ◦ He annexed the Raichur doab and reached as far as Kanchipuram.
  • ◦ He was also able to snatch Dabhol and Goa from Vijayanagara.
    • ■ Control over these two ports greatly boosted the external trade. Internal trade and manufacturing of the Kingdom also grew.
• • Gawan had to wage a bitter struggle with Malwa ruler Mahmud Khalji over the question of Berar.
  • ◦ In this struggle, he was given active help by the Gujarat rulers.

Internal Reforms and Downfall

• • He carried out the administrative reorganisation of the Sultanate by dividing it into 8 provinces ‘Taraf/Atrafs’.
• • He also strengthened the military by including local Marathas in the army. He introduced the practice of making land grants to top commanders, thus winning Maratha loyalty.
• • He also introduced the system of survey and measurement for land revenue.
• • Apart from opening ‘Muqtabs’ for elementary education, Gawan also set up a large Madrasa (college) in Bidar in the traditional Persian style called ‘REGISTAN’.
  • ◦ It was a three storey building in which a thousand teachers and students could live.
  • ◦ Some of the most famous scholars of the time from Iran and Iraq came there to teach.
• • The struggle between the Afaqis and Dakhni nobles was initially calmed by Mahmud Gawan.
  • ◦ However, he couldn’t bridge the factional gap completely, ultimately falling victim to it himself.
  • ◦ The young sultan executed him on trumped up charges.

The strife became only more intense after this and the Bahamani Kingdom soon splintered into the five Deccan states, out of which, Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmednagar played important historical roles.

AFANASY NIKITIN

• • He was possibly the first Russian traveller to come to India. He has described both Vijayanagar and Bahamani kingdom in the 15th century.
• • Nikitin calls Mahmud Gawan, ‘Tuzzar’, as Mahmud Gawan held the title of ‘Malik-i-Tuzzar’.
• • According to him, the land was very populous and the common people were very poor. But the nobles lived in great luxury.
  • ◦ Nikitin was amazed to see the king and the nobles ride on men. Perhaps he refers to palanquins carried by four to twenty men on special occasions.
• • It was his observation that, in India, everyone goes naked. All were barefoot, walked fast and were strong.
  • ◦ The intensity of heat possibly made people use scanty clothes. Perhaps this practice made Nikitin think that they went ‘naked’.
  • ◦ He, however, admits that they wore jewellery and ornaments.
• • He has given a rich, but not free from errors, account of contemporary society.

Administration

The Bahamanis imitated the broad administrative structure of Delhi Sultanate. The offices and departments bear similarity with the ones from Delhi Sultanate.

• • However, some new offices were created with time, e.g. Wakil-us-Sultanat (Prime minister).
• • Muhammad I (c. 1358-78 CE) is credited for institutionalizing the administrative structure.
• • The Sultanate was divided into four ‘tarafs’ with their headquarters at Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar and Gulbarga.
  • ◦ Governors (Tarafdars) of different provinces were given different titles.
• • Mahmud Gawan tried to reform the administration.
  • ◦ He tried to issue revenue assignments on the basis of land measurement.
  • ◦ He also tried to curb the power of the ‘tarafdars’, who were controlling the military administration of the province.
• • The law of primogeniture gained comparatively more acceptance in the Bahamani Kingdom than the Delhi Sultanate.
• • Throughout the life of Bahamani Kingdom, there was a tussle between the Dakhni and Afaqi nobles over plum posts in the administration.

Economy and Society

• • The economy under the Bahamani sultans was prosperous but highly unequal.
  • ◦ Nikitin has thrown light on the trade and commerce of this period. According to him, Dabhol port was connected with the other ports of the Indian subcontinent and Africa.
  • ◦ Horses, clothes, silk and black pepper etc. were important items of trade.
  • ◦ Horses were imported from Arabia, Khurasan and Turkistan.
  • ◦ Indian merchants dominated the inland trade.
• • Nikitin highlights the glaring inequality between the nobility and commoners.
  • ◦ However, the society must have been more differentiated than this binary classification as the different occupational and ethnic groups must have occupied different positions in the socioeconomic hierarchy.
• • The social outlook of the Bahmani kings was mostly liberal.
  • ◦ Hindus of all castes, local Muslims, the immigrants from central and west Asia etc. lived in the kingdom which had a cosmopolitan structure.
  • ◦ Shia Muslims emerged as a social group due to migration from central Asia.
• • Persian, Marathi, Dakhni, Kannada and Telugu etc. were the commonly spoken languages.
• • Hindus were usually not discriminated against.
  • ◦ There is no solid evidence to suggest that Jizya was imposed. If it was collected at all, then, it was a part of Kharaj.
• • Sufis migrated to the Deccan before and during this period in a large number. Sultans needed their support for legitimacy. Sattariya, Chishti and Qadiri were among the main Sufi orders.
  • ◦ Bidar was an important centre of the Qadiria order.
  • ◦ The Chisti saint Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz migrated from Delhi to Gulbarga in c. 1402 CE. Firuz Shah granted ‘Inam’ land for the maintenance of his ‘khanqah’.

Successor States (1482-1687)

• • Ahmednagar - it was ruled by the Nizam Shahi dynasty. In 1601 it was forced to accept the Mughal suzerainty by Akbar. It was finally annexed by Shah Jahan in 1636.
• • Bidar- it was ruled by the Barid Shahi Dynasty and was absorbed by the Ahmednagar Sultanate.
• • Berar - it was ruled by the Imad Shahi dynasty, and was also absorbed by the Ahamednagar.
• • Bijapur - it was ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty. It was forced to accept the Mughal suzerainty by the Shah Jahan in 1636 and later annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.
• • Golkonda - it was ruled by the Qutub Shahi dynasty and suffered the same fate as Bijapur. Shah Jahan established Mughal overlordship over it in 1636 and Aurangzeb annexed it in 1687.

Important personalities of the later phase included

• • Ibrahim Adil Shah - He built the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, the largest dome in Asia. He was also known as Jagatguru due to his religious tolerance, love for knowledge and music.
• • Malik Ambar - originally a slave from Ethiopia named Chapu.
  • ◦ He was educated and trained in Baghdad, converted to Islam and renamed.
  • ◦ He was sold into the service of Malik Dabir (Royal Scribe) of Ahmednagar under whom he gained administrative and military experience.
  • ◦ After the death of his master, he was freed and became a military leader, raising his own force.
  • ◦ Mughal aggression towards the Deccan allowed him to quickly rise in power.
  • ◦ He became the Prime Minister and had his daughter married to the Sultan of Ahmednagar, becoming the regent and de facto ruler of Ahmednagar.
  • ◦ He joined hands with the Marathas to successfully resist Mughal encroachment.

Bahmani - Vijayanagar Struggle

The 14th century saw the emergence of two powerful Deccani kingdoms.

• • Bahamani Sultanate covered the linguistic region of Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. It was situated to the north of the Vijaynagar Empire.
• • The Vijaynagar Empire covered the linguistic region of Telugu, Tamil, Kannada.
  • ◦ Their proximity led to a number of disputes between the two kingdoms and their history in rife with incessant warfare. For almost 200 years, they fought for the control of,
    • ■ The Konkan Coast, including important ports such as Goa and Dabhol
    • ■ Raichur Doab (between the Krishna and the Tunghbadhra)
    • ■ Krishna-Godavari Delta
• • During this period, their fortunes shifted constantly. Finally in 1565, the combined armies of 4 successor states (Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar) defeated the Vijayanagar Empire, being led by Rama Raya, in the decisive Battle of Talikota/ Bannihatti/ Rakshasa Tagadi.
• • The Vijaynagar empire collapsed after this. However, some of its Amara Nayakas continued to rule independently.

Q: Examine the nature of conflict between the Vijayanagara Kingdom and the Bahamani Sultanate.

Both, Vijayanagara Empire and Bahamani Kingdom were born almost simultaneously and started fighting immediately.

• • Harihar and Bukka took the help of Hindu revivalist movement of Kapaya Nayaka to complete his independence project.
• • They were also associated with a Hindu monk Vidyaranya.
• • Often, the geopolitical contest between the Bahamanis and Vijayanagara took a bloody religious turn.
• • Vijayanagara Kings tried to create the image of a Hindu state and the Sultans also used religion and religious vengeance as it suited them.
• • Richard Eaton calls the Vijayanagara frontier the ‘Maginot Line’ of the Deccan.

Historiography

• • However, it was essentially a geopolitical conflict with historical roots.
  • ◦ They fought for the control of fertile land and strategic ports, just like the erstwhile kingdoms of the Peninsular India had fought for the control of Raichur Doab, Krishna-Godavari Delta and the Konkan Coast.
• • Their Rajamandala considerations were purely secular. Once they even aligned with each other.
• • Firuz Shah employed a large number of Hindus in his administration and Vijayanagara inducted Muslim archers in their army.
• • Within their respective kingdoms, there was no considerable favouritism in the matters of taxation, trade and rights of the subjects.
• • Both kingdoms practised their own versions of tolerance.
• • Thus, it becomes clear that the Vijayanagar-Bahmani conflict was not a religious crusade but religion was certainly used to mobilise the respective sides more strongly.